Editing Carus (section)

==Biography==
[[File:Caro emperador.jpg|thumb|Possible bust of Carus in the [[Museo Archeologico Ostiense]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Portraiture of Emperor Carus |url=http://rome101.com/Portraiture/Carus/ |access-date=2023-03-26 |website=rome101.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Portrait-bust of a man, perhaps Carus|url=https://www.ostia-antica.org/museum-ostia/inv-75.htm |access-date=2023-06-30 |website=Ostia Atica}}</ref>|left]]
Carus, whose name before the accession may have been Marcus Numerius Carus,<ref name="Jones, pg. 183">Jones, pg. 183</ref> was born, according to differing accounts, either in [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]], [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]] or [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]].<ref>[[Edward Gibbon]], ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', (The Modern Library, 1932), ch. XII., p. 292</ref> Modern scholarship inclines to the former view, placing his birth at [[Narbonne|Narbo (modern Narbonne)]] in [[Gallia Narbonensis]],<ref>Victor, 38:1</ref><ref>The tradition that he was one of the so-called "[[Illyrian Emperors]]", based on the unreliable ''vita Cari'' embedded in the [[Augustan History]], was accepted uncritically by [[Joseph Scaliger]], who assumed the other sources were wrong. (Tom B. Jones, "A Note on Marcus Aurelius Carus" ''Classical Philology'' '''37'''.2 (April 1942), pp. 193–194).</ref> though he was educated in [[Rome]].<ref>Historia Augusta, "Vita Cari", 4:2</ref> Little can be said with certainty of his life and rule. Due to the decline of literature, the arts, and the want of any good historians of that age, what is known is almost invariably involved in contradiction and doubt.<ref>Gibbon, ibid; and ch. XIII., p. 340</ref>  He was apparently a [[Roman Senate|senator]]<ref>Historia Augusta, "Vita Cari", 5:4</ref> and filled various posts, both civil and military, before being appointed [[praetorian prefect]] by the emperor [[Marcus Aurelius Probus|Probus]] in 282.<ref>Gibbon, ch. XII., p. 292</ref>

Two traditions surround his accession to the throne in August or September of 282. According to some mostly Latin sources, he was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers after the murder of Probus by a mutiny at [[Sirmium]].<ref>Jerome, Chron. s. a. 282</ref> Greek sources however claim that he rose against Probus in [[Raetia]] in a usurpation and had him killed.<ref>Zonaras, 12:29</ref> Allegedly, he initially refused the offer at first out of loyalty, but soon accepted.<ref>{{Cite web |last=C |first=Franco |date=2020-09-06 |title=Roman Emperor Carus {{!}} History Cooperative |url=https://historycooperative.org/marcus-aurelius-numerius-carus/ |access-date=2023-01-25 |language=en-US}}</ref> The often unreliable [[Historia Augusta]] is aware of both traditions, although it prefers the former.<ref>Historia Augusta, "Vita Cari", 6:1</ref>  He does not seem to have returned to Rome after his accession, contenting himself with an announcement to the Senate.<ref>Southern, pg. 132</ref> This was a marked departure from the constitutionalism of his immediate predecessors, [[Tacitus (emperor)|Tacitus]] and Probus, who at least outwardly respected the authority of the senate, and was the precursor to the even more despotic military autocracy of [[Diocletian]].<ref>Gibbon, p. 293; and ch. XIII., pp. 328, 329</ref> Despite this, he still sought to deify the emperor Probus.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Cavazzi |first=Franco |date=2021-12-16 |title=Emperor Carus |url=https://roman-empire.net/people/carus/ |access-date=2023-01-25 |website=The Roman Empire |language=en-us}}</ref>

===Campaign against the Sasanian Empire and death===
{{Main|Carus' Sasanian Campaign}}
[[File:Naghsh-e rostam, Irán, 2016-09-24, DD 10.jpg|thumb|left|Panels at [[Naqsh-e Rustam]], symbolizing the supposed victories of [[Bahram II]] over Carus (top) and [[Hormizd I Kushanshah]] (bottom).<ref name="EI">[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hormozd-kusansah Encyclopedia Iranica]</ref>]]
Carus bestowed the title of [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] upon his sons [[Carinus]] and [[Numerian]],<ref name="Zonaras, 12:30">Zonaras, 12:30</ref><ref>Victor 38:2</ref> then, in the beginning of 283, he elevated Carinus to the rank of [[Augustus (title)|Augustus]], leaving him in charge of the western portion of the empire to look after some disturbances in [[Gaul]]<ref>Gibbon, ch. XII., p. 293</ref> and took Numerian with him on an expedition against the [[Persian Empire|Persians]], which had been contemplated by Probus.<ref>Historia Augusta, "Vita Cari", 7:1</ref>  During his first campaign as emperor, he inflicted a severe defeat on the [[Quadi]] and [[Sarmatians]] on the [[Danube]],<ref>Gibbon, p. 294. Enemy casualties are given at over 36,000.</ref> for which he was given the title ''Germanicus Maximus.''<ref name="roman-emperors.org">Leadbetter, www.roman-emperors.org/carus.htm</ref> Reportedly, 16,000 Quadi were killed, with 20,000 being taken prisoner.<ref name=":0" /> Carus then proceeded through [[Thrace]] and [[Asia Minor]], annexed [[Mesopotamia]], pressed on to [[Seleucia on the Tigris|Seleucia]] and [[Ctesiphon]], and marched his soldiers beyond the [[Tigris]].<ref name="Zonaras, 12:30"/>{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}

The [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid King]] [[Bahram II]], limited by internal opposition and his troops occupied with a campaign in modern-day [[Afghanistan]], could not effectively defend his territory.<ref name="roman-emperors.org"/> The Sasanians, faced with severe internal problems, could not mount an effective coordinated defense at the time; Carus and his army may have captured the Sasanian capital of [[Ctesiphon]].{{sfn|Potter|2013|page=26}} The victories of Carus avenged all the previous defeats suffered by the Romans against the Sassanids, and he received the title of ''Persicus Maximus''.<ref>Southern, pg. 133</ref> Rome's hopes of further conquest, however, were cut short by his death; Carus died in Sasanian territory, probably of unnatural causes, as he was reportedly struck by lightning.{{sfn|Potter|2013|page=26}} Alternate theories suggest that he died of illness, or that a rival for power poisoned him. Another theory hints at the future emperor Diocletian being involved in the killing.<ref name=":0" /> However, Leadbetter considered it unlikely for Carus to be assassinated, as his army had just won a victory.<ref>William Leadbetter, [http://www.roman-emperors.sites.luc.edu/carus.htm Carus (282-283 A.D.)]</ref>