Editing Campania (section)

==History==
{{See also|Ancient Campania}}

=== Pre-Roman period ===
{{See also|Samnite Wars|Etruscan Civilization|Roman Republic||Pre-Indo-European languages|Oscan language|Magna Græcia}}
[[File:Hera temple II - Paestum - Poseidonia - July 13th 2013 - 04.jpg|thumb|Ancient Greek [[Second Temple of Hera (Paestum)|Temple of Hera]], [[Paestum]], built in the [[Doric order]] around 460–450 BC]]
The region known today as ''Campania'' was inhabited from at least the beginning of the 1st millennium BC by several  [[Oscan language|Oscan-speaking]] [[Italic tribes]]: the [[Osci]], the [[Opici]], the [[Aurunci]], the [[Ausones]], the [[Sidicini]], the [[Hirpini]], the [[Caudini]], the [[Oenotrians]], the [[Campanians]] (after whom the region is named) and the [[Lucanians]] (who inhabited the southernmost part of Campania, known in ancient times as [[Lucania]], roughly where modern-day [[province of Salerno|Salerno]] is).<ref>(Giacomo Devoto, Gli antichi italici, Firenze, Vallecchi, 1931, p.118).</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.instoria.it/home/italia_antiqua_XV.htm|publisher=InStoria.it|title=Italia Antiqua – XV, Campania|date=7 October 2007|access-date=22 July 2009|archive-date=27 December 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081227225736/http://www.instoria.it/home/italia_antiqua_XV.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Many of these [[tribe]]s lived in [[Subsistence agriculture|simple]] [[agro-town]]s. Not much is known about the [[Pre-Indo-European languages|pre-Indo-European tribes]] that had lived in the region earlier; they were probably not as technologically or culturally advanced as the Oscans, and any who still flourished had become fully Oscanised by the middle of the first millennium BC.

Between the 9th and 6th centuries BC, the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]] from [[Central Italy]] established [[colony|colonies]] in the Campanian Plains (the inland territories that today are the [[province of Caserta|provinces of Caserta]] and [[province of Naples|Naples]]), as well as in the regions of [[Agro Nocerino-Sarnese]] and Agro Picentino (which today are in the [[province of Salerno]]). There, they essentially replicated their [[Etruscan cities|''Dodecapolis'' (twelve cities)]] political model, founding the cities of ''Hyria'' (modern-day [[Nola]]), ''Irnthi'' or ''Marcina'' (modern-day [[Salerno]]), ''Amina'' (modern-day [[Pontecagnano Faiano]]), ''Velcha'', ''Velsu'' and ''Uri''. In addition to [[cultural assimilation|assimilating]] into their [[Urban sociology|urban-political]] domains, the Etruscans also incorporated the pre-existing tribal Oscan agro-towns of ''Capua'' (modern-day [[Santa Maria Capua Vetere]]), ''[[Nuceria]]'' (modern-day ''[[comune|comuni]]'' of [[Nocera Superiore]] and [[Nocera Inferiore]]), [[Suessula]], [[Acerra]], [[Ercolano]], [[Pompeii]], [[Stabiae]] and [[Sorrento]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://spazioinwind.libero.it/popoli_antichi/Etruschi/Etruria%20Campana.html| title = Etruria campana| access-date = 2 September 2019| archive-date = 14 December 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211214214230/http://spazioinwind.libero.it/popoli_antichi/Etruschi/Etruria%20Campana.html| url-status = live}}</ref><ref>[[Strabo]], ''[[Geographica]]'', V (Italia), 4.3.</ref><ref name = ":0">{{cite book|title=Storia di Nocera. Monumenti, personaggi, leggende|last=Francesco Belsito|publisher=Angri, Gaia|year=2013}}</ref>

Meanwhile, during the 8th century BC, [[Ancient Greek language|Greek-speaking people]] from [[Euboea]] (in [[Central Greece (geographic region)|Central Greece]]), known as [[Cumae]]ans, began to establish colonies themselves roughly around the coastal areas of the modern-day [[province of Naples]] and in the [[Phlegraean Islands|nearby islands]] founding, among others, the cities of [[Cumae]], ''Pithekoūsai'' (modern-day [[Ischia]]), [[Paestum]], [[Herculaneum]] and ''Dicaearchia'', later 'Puteoli', in Latin (modern-day [[Pozzuoli]]). The city of [[Naples]] began as a small commercial port called [[History of Naples#Greek birth, Roman acquisition|Parthenope]] (Παρθενόπη, meaning "Pure Eyes", a Siren in [[Greek mythology]]), which was established by Greek colonial sailors from [[Rhodes]].<ref name="campaniahistoryone">{{cite news|url=http://www.iterteam.it/eng/campania/storia.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050505081832/http://www.iterteam.it/eng/campania/storia.html|archive-date=5 May 2005|publisher=Interteam.it|title=Campania: History|date=7 October 2007}}</ref> The region thus became one of the centers of [[Magna Graecia]].

[[File:Aeclanum (Thermae-01).jpg|thumb|Ruins of [[Aeclanum]], a Roman town in [[Irpinia]] district]]

At one point in history, a distinct group of Oscan-speaking tribes from [[Samnium]] (in south-central Italy), the [[Samnites]], moved down into Campania.
Since the Samnites were more warlike than the other Oscan populations, they easily took over the cities of [[Capua]] and Cumae, in an area which was one of the most prosperous and fertile in the [[Italian Peninsula]] at the time.<ref name = "samnite wars"/> During the 340s BC, the Samnites were engaged in a war with the [[Roman Republic]] in a dispute known as the [[Samnite Wars]], with Rome claiming the rich pastures of northern Campania during the [[Samnite Wars|First Samnite War]].<ref name = "pirat"/> The First Samnite War was initiated when the Etruscan-influenced Oscan city of Capua (in [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]] ''Capeva'') was being attacked by the Samnites, and thus appealed to Rome for defensive help.

As the majority of [[Southern Italy]] was under Roman control at the time, the sole major remaining independent settlement in the region was the [[Greeks|Greek]] colony of [[Naples|Neapolis]], and when the city was eventually [[Capture of Neapolis|captured by the Samnites]], the Neapolitan Greeks were left with no option but to call on the [[Roman Republic|Romans]], with whom they established an alliance, setting off the [[Second Samnite War]].<ref name="samnite wars">{{cite news|url=http://www.unrv.com/empire/samnite-wars.php|publisher=UNRV.com|title=The Samnite Wars|date=7 October 2007|access-date=22 July 2009|archive-date=28 June 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090628093318/http://www.unrv.com/empire/samnite-wars.php|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Consul|Roman consul]] Quintus Publilius Filo recaptured Neapolis by 326 BC and allowed it to remain a Greek city with some autonomy as a ''[[civitas]] foederata'' while strongly aligned with Rome.<ref name="romannaples">{{cite news|url=http://faculty.ed.umuc.edu/~jmatthew/naples/Roman_Naples.html|publisher=Faculty.ed.umuc.du|title=Roman Naples|date=7 October 2007|access-date=22 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629003110/http://faculty.ed.umuc.edu/~jmatthew/naples/Roman_Naples.html|archive-date=29 June 2009}}</ref> The Second Samnite War ended with the Romans controlling all of southern Campania and additional regions further to the south, such as parts of [[Lucania]].<ref name="pirat">{{cite news|url=http://pirate.shu.edu/~vigorimi/genealogy/first_millenium_BC.html|publisher=Michael Vigorita|title=Ancient Times – 1st millennium B.C.|date=7 October 2007|access-date=22 July 2009|archive-date=7 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007230938/http://pirate.shu.edu/~vigorimi/genealogy/first_millenium_BC.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Roman period===
{{See also|Roman Republic|Roman Empire|Italia (Roman Empire)}}
Campania was a full-fledged part of the [[Roman Republic]] by the end of the 4th century BC, valued for its [[pasture]]s and rich countryside. Naples, with its [[Greek language]] and customs, made it a centre of Hellenistic culture for the Romans, creating the first traces of [[Greco-Roman]] culture.<ref name = "rome"/> During the [[Pyrrhic War]] in 275 BC, the [[Battle of Beneventum (275 BC)|Battle of Beneventum]] took place in Campania in the Samnite city of Maleventum, in which the Romans, led by the consul [[Curius Dentatus]], were victorious. They renamed it Beneventum (modern day [[Benevento]]), which grew in stature until it was second only to Capua in southern Italy.<ref>{{cite book |last=Oakley |first=Stephen P |title=A Commentary on Livy, Books VI-X |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JqsqlajAPCoC&pg=PA43|isbn=0-19-927143-7 |page=43|year=1971}}</ref> During the [[Second Punic War]] in 216 BC, Capua, in a bid for equality with Rome, allied with [[Carthage]].<ref name = "emps"/> The rebellious Capuans were isolated from the rest of Campania, which remained allies of Rome. [[Naples]] resisted [[Hannibal]] due to the imposing walls.<ref name = "rome"/> Capua was eventually starved into submission in the [[Battle of Capua (211 BC)|Roman retaking of 211 BC]], and the Romans were victorious.<ref name="emps">{{cite news|url=http://roman-empire.info/roman-empire/13/|publisher=Roman-Empire.info|title=Second Punic War: Second Period, From The Revolt Of Capua To The Battle Of The Metaurus – b.C. 215-207|date=8 January 2008|access-date=22 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091012185144/http://roman-empire.info/roman-empire/13/|archive-date=12 October 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:Karl Brullov - The Last Day of Pompeii - Google Art Project.jpg|left|thumb|''The Last Day of Pompeii'' – [[Karl Briullov]]]]
With the initial exception of Naples, the region adopted [[Latin language|Latin]] as official language, in that sense gradually replacing the native Oscan and the Greek and the Etruscan still talked respectively in their colonies of the region,<ref>Freeman, Philip (1999). [https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1033&context=etruscan_studies The Survival of Etruscan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808175457/https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1033&context=etruscan_studies |date=8 August 2022 }}. Page 82: "Oscan graffiti on the walls of Pompeii show that non-Latin languages could thrive in urban locations in Italy well into the 1st century A.D."</ref><ref name=McDonald>McDonald, K. L. (2017). [https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/handle/10871/26433/McDonald%20K%20Fragmentary%20languages%20OA%20accepted%20version.pdf?sequence=1 "Fragmentary ancient languages as "bad data": towards a methodology for investigating multilingualism in epigraphic sources."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220820213127/https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/handle/10871/26433/McDonald%20K%20Fragmentary%20languages%20OA%20accepted%20version.pdf?sequence=1 |date=20 August 2022 }} Pages 4-6</ref><ref name=Schrijver2>Schrijver, Peter. [https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/58457204/roma_amor.pdf?response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DOscan_love_of_Rome.pdf&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Credential=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A%2F20190606%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20190606T022027Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Signature=87a48ca9042fb90908fbda952db351edc539f4ab5b75e07807acd10c17dfce45 Oscan love of Rome]. Page 2.</ref> subsequently becoming fully [[Romanised]].<ref>Lomas, Kathryn, "The Hellenization of Italy", in Powell, Anton. [https://books.google.com/books?id=jW6GAgAAQBAJ&dq=Oscan+survival&pg=PA347 ''The Greek World''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918215727/https://books.google.com/books?id=jW6GAgAAQBAJ&dq=Oscan+survival&pg=PA347 |date=18 September 2023 }}. Page 354.</ref><ref name = "littlehist"/> As part of the [[Roman Empire]], Campania, with [[Latium]], formed the most important region of the [[Augustus|Augustan]] divisions of [[Italia (Roman Empire)|Italia]], the ''Regio I Latium et Campania''; Campania was one of the main areas for [[granary]].<ref name="littlehist">{{cite news|url=http://www.emmeti.it/Cucina/Campania/Storia/Campania.ART.95.uk.html|publisher=Emmeti.it|title=Campania: A Little History|date=8 January 2008|access-date=22 July 2009|archive-date=29 June 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629002405/http://www.emmeti.it/Cucina/Campania/Storia/Campania.ART.95.uk.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In ancient times Misenum (modern '[[Miseno]]'), at the extreme northern end of the bay of Naples, was the largest base of the Roman navy, since its port (Portus Julius) was the base of the Classis Misenensis, the most important Roman fleet. It was first established as a naval base in 27 BC by Marcus Agrippa, the right-hand man of the emperor Augustus. [[Roman Emperor]]s chose Campania as a holiday destination, among them [[Claudius]] and [[Tiberius]], the latter of whom is infamously linked to the island of [[Capri]].<ref name = "rome"/> It was also during this period that [[Christianity]] came to Campania. Two of the [[Apostles in the New Testament|apostles]], [[Saint Peter|St. Peter]] and [[Paul the Apostle|St. Paul]], are said to have preached in the city of Naples, and there were also several [[martyr]]s during this time.<ref name="catholi">{{Cite CE1913|wstitle=Naples}}</ref> The period of relative calm was violently interrupted by the epic eruption of [[Mount Vesuvius]] in 79 which buried the cities of [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/P/pompeii/index.htm|publisher=Channel4.com|title=Secrets of the Dead: Pompeii and Herculaneum|date=8 January 2008|access-date=22 July 2009|archive-date=29 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090529045250/http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/P/pompeii/index.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> With the [[Decline of the Roman Empire]], its last emperor, [[Romulus Augustus]], was put in a [[manor house]] prison near [[Castel dell'Ovo]], Naples, in 476, ushering in the beginning of the [[Middle Ages]] and a period of uncertainty in regard to the future of the area.<ref name="rome">{{cite news|url=http://naples.rome-in-italy.com/history_naples_1.html|publisher=Naples.Rome-in-Italy.com|title=Antic Naples|date=8 January 2008|access-date=22 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081225013134/http://naples.rome-in-italy.com/history_naples_1.html|archive-date=25 December 2008}}</ref>

===Feudalism in the Middle Ages===
{{See also|Byzantine Empire|Duchy of Naples|Duchy of Benevento|Principality of Capua|Principality of Salerno|Duchy of Amalfi|Duchy of Sorrento|Duchy of Apulia and Calabria}}

The area had many [[Duchy|duchies]] and [[principalities]] during the [[Middle Ages]], in the hands of the [[Byzantine Empire]] (also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire) and the [[Lombards]]. Under the [[Normans]], the smaller [[List of sovereign states|independent states]] were brought together as part of the [[Kingdom of Sicily]], before the mainland broke away to form the [[Kingdom of Naples]]. It was during this period that elements of [[Spain|Spanish]], [[France|French]] and [[Aragon]]ese culture were introduced to Campania. Allegiances with the Muslim [[Saracens]] were made in 836, and the Arabs were requested to repel the siege of [[Lombards|Lombard]] troops coming from the neighbouring [[Duchy of Benevento]].<ref name=mag>{{harvnb|Magnusson|Goring|1990}}</ref><ref>Hilmar C. Krueger. "The Italian Cities and the Arabs before 1095" in ''A History of the Crusades: The First Hundred Years'', Vol.I. Kenneth Meyer Setton, Marshall W. Baldwin (eds., 1955). University of Pennsylvania Press. p.48.</ref>

===The Kingdom===

====Norman to Angevin====
{{See also|Kingdom of Sicily|Kingdom of Naples|List of monarchs of Naples}}
[[File:Napoli Castel Nuovo Maschio Angioino, a seat of medieval kings of Naples and Aragon 2013.jpg|thumb|Early kings ruled from [[Castel Nuovo]]]]
After a period as a Norman kingdom, the [[Kingdom of Sicily]] passed to the [[House of Hohenstaufen|Hohenstaufens]], who were a powerful Germanic [[royal house]] of [[Swabia]]n origins.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://faculty.ed.umuc.edu/~jmatthew/naples/swabian.html|publisher=Faculty.ed.umuc.edu|title=Swabian Naples|date=7 October 2007|access-date=22 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090501071528/http://faculty.ed.umuc.edu/~jmatthew/naples/swabian.html|archive-date=1 May 2009}}</ref> The [[University of Naples Federico II]] was founded by [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] in the city, the oldest state university in the world, making Naples the intellectual centre of the kingdom.<ref name="oldestuni">{{cite news|url=http://www.scholarshipnet.info/postgraduate/italy-phd-scholarships-in-various-fields-at-university-of-naples-federico-ii/|publisher=ScholarshipNet.info|title=Italy: PhD Scholarships in Various Fields at University of Naples-Federico II|date=7 October 2007|access-date=22 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090130015326/http://www.scholarshipnet.info/postgraduate/italy-phd-scholarships-in-various-fields-at-university-of-naples-federico-ii/|archive-date=30 January 2009}}</ref> Conflict between the Hohenstaufen house and the [[Papacy]], led in 1266 to [[Pope Innocent IV]] crowning [[Capetian House of Anjou|Angevin Dynasty]] duke [[Charles I of Naples|Charles I]] as the king.<ref name = "dieli"/> Charles officially moved the capital from [[Palermo]] to Naples where he resided at the ''[[Castel Nuovo]]''.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.planetware.com/naples/castel-nuovo-i-cm-ncn.htm|publisher=PlanetWare.com|title=Naples – Castel Nuovo|date=7 October 2007|access-date=22 July 2009|archive-date=18 May 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080518044615/http://www.planetware.com/naples/castel-nuovo-i-cm-ncn.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> During this period, much [[Gothic architecture]] sprang up around Naples, including the [[Naples Cathedral]], the main church of the city.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bruzelius |first=Caroline |author-link=Caroline Bruzelius |title="ad modum franciae": Charles of Anjou and Gothic Architecture in the Kingdom of Sicily |issue=4 |pages=402–420 |journal=The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians |volume=50 |jstor=990664|year=1991 |doi=10.2307/990664 }}</ref>

In 1281, with the advent of the [[Sicilian Vespers]], the kingdom split in half. The Angevin [[Kingdom of Naples]] included the southern part of the Italian peninsula, while the island of [[Sicily]] became the [[Crown of Aragon|Aragonese]] [[Kingdom of Sicily]].<ref name = "dieli"/> The wars continued until the [[peace of Caltabellotta]] in 1302, which saw [[Frederick III of Sicily|Frederick III]] recognised as king of the Isle of Sicily, while [[Charles II of Naples|Charles II]] was recognised as the [[List of monarchs of Naples|king of Naples]] by [[Pope Boniface VIII]].<ref name="dieli">{{cite news|url=http://www.dieli.net/SicilyPage/History/SicilianHist.html|publisher=Dieli.net|title=Sicilian History|date=7 October 2007|access-date=22 July 2009|archive-date=4 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090504185251/http://www.dieli.net/SicilyPage/History/SicilianHist.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Despite the split, Naples grew in importance, attracting [[Republic of Pisa|Pisan]] and [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] merchants,<ref>{{cite book |last=Constable |first=Olivia Remie |title=Housing the Stranger in the Mediterranean World: Lodging, Trade, and Travel |publisher=Humana Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y9H7mfxqs7UC&pg=PA209|isbn=1-58829-171-5|date=2002}}</ref> [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] bankers, and with them some of the most championed [[Italian Renaissance|Renaissance]] artists of the time, such as [[Giovanni Boccaccio|Boccaccio]], [[Petrarch]] and [[Giotto di Bondone|Giotto]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.naples-city.info/napoli/angioinoeng.htm|publisher=Naples-City.info|title=Angioino Castle, Naples|date=7 October 2007|access-date=22 July 2009|archive-date=29 September 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080929152952/http://www.naples-city.info/napoli/angioinoeng.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Alfonso V of Aragon|Alfonso I]] conquered Naples after his victory against the last [[Capetian House of Anjou|Angevin]] king, [[René I of Naples|René]], and Naples was unified for a brief period with Sicily again.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/spain/aragonexp.html|publisher=Zum.de|title=Aragonese Overseas Expansion, 1282–1479|date=7 October 2007|access-date=22 July 2009|archive-date=29 December 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081229072358/http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/spain/aragonexp.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Aragonese to Bourbon====
{{See also|Kingdom of Naples|Parthenopaean Republic|Two Sicilies|List of monarchs of the Two Sicilies}}
[[File:Onofrio Palumbo - Masaniello.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Revolutionary [[Masaniello]]]]
Sicily and Naples were separated in 1458 but remained as dependencies of [[Crown of Aragon|Aragon]] under [[Ferdinand I of Naples|Ferrante]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=HGLTkBTylpyyN6nRHvHhh1ChNGN38XWmr4HZhn5HLhnkkhWHHhXn!602093125?docId=5000263626|publisher=|title=Ferrante of Naples: the statecraft of a Renaissance prince|date=7 October 2007|access-date=|archive-date=23 December 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223043514/http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=HGLTkBTylpyyN6nRHvHhh1ChNGN38XWmr4HZhn5HLhnkkhWHHhXn!602093125?docId=5000263626|url-status=dead}}</ref> The new dynasty enhanced Naples' commerce by establishing relations with the [[Iberian Peninsula]]. Naples also became a centre of the Renaissance, with artists such as [[Francesco Laurana|Laurana]], [[Antonello da Messina|da Messina]], [[Jacopo Sannazzaro|Sannazzaro]] and [[Poliziano]] arriving in the city.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://naples.rome-in-italy.com/history_naples_2.html|publisher=Naples.Rome-in-Italy.com|title=Naples Middle-Ages|date=7 October 2007|access-date=22 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080410223414/http://naples.rome-in-italy.com/history_naples_2.html|archive-date=10 April 2008}}</ref> During 1501 Naples came under direct rule from [[Ancien Régime in France|France]] at the time of [[Louis XII of France|Louis XII]], as Neapolitan king [[Frederick IV of Naples|Frederick]] was taken as a prisoner to France; this lasted four years.<ref name = "spanishnaples"/> [[Spain]] won Naples at the [[Battle of Garigliano (1503)|Battle of Garigliano]] and, as a result, Naples then became part of the [[Spanish Empire]] throughout the entire [[Habsburg Spain]] period.<ref name = "spanishnaples"/> The Spanish sent [[viceroy]]s [[List of viceroys of Naples|to Naples]] to directly deal with local issues: the most important of which was [[Pedro Álvarez de Toledo]], who was responsible for considerable social, economic and urban progress in the city; he also supported the [[Spanish Inquisition|Inquisition]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://faculty.ed.umuc.edu/~jmatthew/naples/toledo.html|publisher=Faculty.ed.umuc.edu|title=Don Pedro de Toledo|date=7 October 2007|access-date=22 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509001635/http://faculty.ed.umuc.edu/~jmatthew/naples/toledo.html|archive-date=9 May 2008}}</ref>
[[File:Interno Reggia Caserta.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Caserta Palace]], inside]]
During this period Naples became Europe's second largest city after [[Paris]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.fodors.com/world/europe/italy/naples%20&%3B%20pompeii/feature_30006.html|publisher=Fodors.com|title=Naples Through the Ages|date=7 October 2007|access-date=22 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220215836/http://www.fodors.com/world/europe/italy/naples%20%26%3B%20pompeii/feature_30006.html|archive-date=20 December 2016}}</ref> During the [[Baroque]] era it was home to artists including [[Caravaggio]], [[Salvator Rosa|Rosa]] and [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini|Bernini]]; philosophers such as [[Bernardino Telesio|Telesio]], [[Giordano Bruno|Bruno]], [[Tommaso Campanella|Campanella]] and [[Giambattista Vico|Vico]]; and writers such as [[Gian Battista Marino|Battista Marino]]. A revolution led by local [[fisherman]] [[Masaniello]] saw the creation of a brief independent [[Neapolitan Republic (1647)|Neapolitan Republic]], though this lasted only a few months before Spanish rule was regained.<ref name="spanishnaples">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-27691/Italy|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|title=Spanish acquisition of Naples|date=7 October 2007|access-date=2 June 2022|archive-date=18 February 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080218181240/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-27691/Italy|url-status=live}}</ref> Finally, by 1714, the Spanish ceased to rule Naples as a result of the [[War of the Spanish Succession]]; it was the [[Austria]]n [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles VI]] who ruled from [[Vienna]], similarly, with viceroys.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bartleby.com/65/ch/Charles6HRE.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218115624/http://www.bartleby.com/65/ch/Charles6HRE.html|archive-date=18 December 2007|publisher=Bartleby.com|title=Charles VI, Holy Roman emperor|date=7 October 2007}}</ref> However, the
[[War of the Polish Succession]] saw the Spanish regain Sicily and Naples as part of a [[personal union]], which in the [[Treaty of Vienna (1738)|Treaty of Vienna]] were recognised as independent under a [[cadet branch]] of the Spanish [[House of Bourbon|Bourbons]] in 1738 under [[Charles III of Spain|Charles VII]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.realcasadiborbone.it/uk/archiviostorico/cs_04.htm |publisher=RealCasaDiBorbone.it |title=Charles of Bourbon – the restorer of the Kingdom of Naples |date=7 October 2007 |access-date=22 July 2009 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090926150113/http://www.realcasadiborbone.it/uk/archiviostorico/cs_04.htm |archive-date=26 September 2009 }}</ref>
[[File:Ferdinand i twosicilies.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies|Ferdinand]], Bourbon king]]
During the time of [[Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies|Ferdinand IV]], the [[French Revolution]] made its way to Naples: [[Horatio Nelson]], an ally of the Bourbons, even arrived in the city in 1798 to warn against it. However, Ferdinand was forced to retreat and fled to [[Palermo]], where he was protected by a [[Royal Navy|British fleet]].<ref name = "parth"/> Naples' [[Social class|lower classes]] (the ''[[Naples Lazzaroni|lazzaroni]]'') were pious and [[Monarchism|Royalist]], favouring the Bourbons; in the mêlée that followed, they fought the Neapolitan pro-[[French First Republic|Republican]] aristocracy, causing a [[civil war]].<ref name = "parth"/> The Republicans conquered [[Castel Sant'Elmo]] and proclaimed a [[Parthenopaean Republic]], secured by the [[French Army]].<ref name = "parth"/> A [[counter-revolution]]ary religious army of ''lazzaroni'' under [[Fabrizio Ruffo]] was raised; they had great success and the French surrendered the Neapolitan castles and were allowed to sail back to [[Toulon]].<ref name="parth">{{cite news|url=http://faculty.ed.umuc.edu/~jmatthew/naples/Parthenopean_Republic.html|publisher=Faculty.ed.umuc.edu|title=The Parthenopean Republic|date=7 October 2007|access-date=22 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010306191407/http://faculty.ed.umuc.edu/~jmatthew/naples/Parthenopean_Republic.html|archive-date=6 March 2001}}</ref>

Ferdinand IV was restored as king; however, after only seven years [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] conquered the kingdom and instated [[House of Bonaparte|Bonapartist]] kings including his brother [[Joseph Bonaparte]].<ref name = "bonap"/> With the help of the [[Austrian Empire]] and allies, the Bonapartists were defeated in the [[Neapolitan War]] and Bourbon Ferdinand IV once again regained the throne and the kingdom.<ref name = "bonap"/> The [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1815 saw the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily combined to form the [[Two Sicilies]],<ref name="bonap">{{cite news|url=http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/november/neapolitan1815.htm|publisher=Onwar.com|title=Austria Naples – Neapolitan War 1815|date=7 October 2007|access-date=22 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010731220756/http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/november/neapolitan1815.htm|archive-date=31 July 2001|url-status=dead}}</ref> with Naples as the capital city. Naples became the first city on the Italian peninsula to have a [[railway]] in 1839,<ref name="railway">{{cite news|url=https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=HFrVrf1TjfQLz1blXyCDqSvFywZQx4Xvx2hbqJH3pFdT6mQhPSs2!2097620639?docId=5001632992|publisher=|title=La dolce vita? Italy by rail, 1839–1914|date=7 October 2007|access-date=|archive-date=24 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110624034630/http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=HFrVrf1TjfQLz1blXyCDqSvFywZQx4Xvx2hbqJH3pFdT6mQhPSs2!2097620639?docId=5001632992|url-status=dead}}</ref> there were many factories throughout the kingdom making it a highly important trade centre.<ref name="bourb">{{cite news|url=http://www.neoborbonici.it/portal/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=227&Itemid=137|publisher=NeoBorbonici.it|title=Why Neo-Bourbons|date=7 October 2007|access-date=22 July 2009|archive-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422121649/http://www.neoborbonici.it/portal/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=227&Itemid=137|url-status=live}}</ref>

===World War II===
In September 1943, Salerno was the scene of [[Operation Avalanche (World War II)|Operation Avalanche]] and suffered a great deal of damage. From 12 February to 17 July 1944, it hosted the Government of Marshal [[Pietro Badoglio]]. In those months Salerno was the temporary "Capital of the [[Kingdom of Italy]]", and the King [[Victor Emmanuel III]] lived in a mansion in its outskirts. Salerno received the first "Tricolore" in an official ceremony on 7 January 2012 from the premier [[Mario Monti]], to celebrate the glorious story of Italy and its old capitals.