Editing Cagliari (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of Cagliari}}
{{For timeline}}
[[File:MONTE CLARO.jpg|thumb|180px|Monte Claro culture pottery]]

===Early history===
[[File:Mosaico Karalitani Ostia.jpg|thumb|180px|Karalitan ship owners and traders, mosaic in [[Ostia Antica]]]]

The Cagliari area has been inhabited since the [[Neolithic]]. It occupies a favourable position between the sea and a fertile plain and is surrounded by two [[marsh]]es (which provides defence against attacks from the inland). There are high mountains nearby, to which people could evacuate if the settlement had to be given up. Relics of prehistoric inhabitants were found in the hill of Monte Claro ([[Monte Claro culture]]) and in [[Cape Sant'Elia]] (several [[domus de janas]]).
[[File:PUNIC ERA INSCRIPTION.jpg|thumb|left|180px|The [[Giardino Birocchi inscription]], a Punic era inscription from the [[Museo archeologico nazionale (Cagliari)|National Archeological Museum]]]]
[[File:Necropoli di Tuvixeddu.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Necropolis of Tuvixeddu]]
[[File:Roman Amphitheatre of Cagliari.jpg|thumb|180px|''Is Centu Scalas'' ("a hundred steps"), the [[Roman amphitheatre of Cagliari]]]]
'''Karaly''' ({{langx|xpu|𐤊𐤓𐤋{{popdf}}𐤉}}, {{sc|krly}}){{sfnp|Mastino|2006}} was established around the 8th/7th century BC as one of a string of [[Phoenicia]]n colonies in Sardinia, including [[Tharros]].<ref>[[Claudian]], De Bello Gildonico, IV A.D.: city located in front of Libya (Africa), founded by the powerful [[Tyro]], Karalis extends in length, between the waves, with a small bumpy hill, disperses headwinds. It follows a port in the mid of the sea, and all strong winds are softened in the shelter of the pond. (521. Urbs Lybiam contra Tyrio fundata potenti 521. Tenditur in longum Caralis, tenuemque per undas 
522. Obvia dimittit fracturum flamina collem. 
523. Efficitur portus medium mare: tutaque ventis 
524. Omnibus, ingenti mansuescunt stagna recessu)</ref> The etymology of the toponym is unknown. It almost certainly does not come from the Phoenician language, but it has some similarities with other Sardinian or Asia Minor toponyms.<ref>M.L.Wagner,La lingua sarda, storia spirito e forma</ref> Its founding is linked to its position along communication routes with Africa as well as to its excellent port. The Phoenician settlement was located in the [[Stagno di Cagliari|Stagno di Santa Gilla]], west of the present centre of Cagliari. This was also the site of the Roman ''Portus Scipio'', and when Arab pirates raided the area in the 8th century it became the refuge for people fleeing from the city. Other Phoenician settlements have been found at Cape Sant'Elia.

In the late 6th century BC [[Carthage]] took control of part of Sardinia, and Cagliari grew substantially under its domination, as testified by the large [[Tuvixeddu necropolis]] and other remains. Cagliari was a fortified settlement in what is now the modern Marina quarter, with an annexed holy area in the modern Stampace.

Sardinia and Cagliari came under [[Roman Republic|Roman rule]] in 238 BC, shortly after the [[First Punic War]], when the Romans defeated the Carthaginians. No mention of it is found on the occasion of the Roman conquest of the island but, during the [[Second Punic War]], '''Caralis''' was the headquarters of the praetor, [[Titus Manlius Torquatus (dictator)|Titus Manlius Torquatus]], whence he conducted his operations against [[Hampsicora]] and the Carthaginians.<ref>[[Livy]] xxiii. 40, 41.</ref> At other times it was also the Romans' chief naval station on the island and the residence of its praetor.<ref>''Id.'' xxx. 39.</ref>

The Romans built a new settlement east of the old Punic city, the ''vicus munitus Caralis'' (i.e. the fortified [[Vicus (Rome)|community]] of Caralis) mentioned by [[Varro Atacinus]]. The two urban agglomerations merged gradually during the second century BC; to this process is perhaps attributable the plural name '''Carales'''.<ref>Attilio Mastino (a cura di), Storia della Sardegna antica, Il Maestrale, Nuoro,2005</ref>

[[Florus]] calls it the ''urbs urbium'' or capital of Sardinia. He represents it as taken and severely punished by [[Gracchus]],<ref>ii. 6. § 35.</ref> but this statement is wholly at variance with Livy's account of the wars of Gracchus, in Sardinia, according to which the cities were faithful to Rome, and the revolt was confined to the mountain tribes.<ref>xli. 6, 12, 17.</ref> In the [[Caesar's civil war|Civil War]] between [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]] and [[Pompey]], the citizens of Caralis were the first to declare in favor of the former, an example soon followed by the other cities of Sardinia;<ref>[[Julius Caesar]] ''[[Commentarii de Bello Civili]]'' i. 30.</ref> and Caesar himself touched there with his fleet on his return from Africa.<ref>Hirt. ''B. Afr.'' 98.</ref> A few years later, when Sardinia fell into the hands of [[Menas (freedman)|Menas]], the lieutenant of [[Sextus Pompeius]], Caralis was the only city which offered any resistance, but was taken after a short siege.<ref>[[Cassius Dio]] xlviii. 30.</ref>

Cagliari continued to be regarded as the capital of the island under the [[Roman Empire]], and though it did not become a [[Colonia (Roman)|colony]], obtained the status of ''[[municipium]]''.<ref>[[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] iii. 7. s. 13; [[Strabo]] v. p. 224; [[Pomponius Mela]], ii. 7; ''[[Antonine Itinerary]]'' pp. 80, 81, 82, ''etc.''</ref>

Remains of Roman public buildings were found to the west of Marina in Piazza del Carmine. There was an area of ordinary housing near the modern Via Roma, and richer houses on the slopes of the Marina distinct. The amphitheatre is located to the west of the Castello.

A [[Christians|Christian]] community is attested in Cagliari at least as early as the 3rd century, and by the end of that century the city had a Christian bishop. In the middle decades of the 4th century bishop [[Lucifer of Cagliari]] was exiled because of his opposition to the sentence against [[Athanasius of Alexandria]] at the [[Synod of Milan]]. He was banished to the desert of [[Thebais]] by the emperor [[Constantius II]].<ref>Sozomen, ''Ecclesiastical History'', 3.15 and 5.12</ref>

[[Claudian]] describes the ancient city of Karalis as extending to a considerable length towards the promontory or headland, the projection of which sheltered its port. The port affords good anchorage for large vessels, but besides this, which is only a well-sheltered standby, there is a large salt-water lake or lagoon, called the [[Stagno di Cagliari]], adjoining the city and communicating by a narrow channel with the bay, which appears from Claudian to have been used in ancient times as an inner harbor or basin.<ref>Claud. ''B. Gild.'' 520-24.</ref> The promontory adjoining the city is evidently that noticed by Ptolemy ({{lang|grc|Κάραλις πόλις καὶ ἄκρα}}), but the Caralitanum Promontorium of [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] can be no other than the headland, now called [[Capo Carbonara]], which forms the eastern boundary of the [[Gulf of Cagliari]] and the southeast point of the whole island. Immediately off it lay the little island of Ficaria,<ref>Pliny ''l. c.''; Ptolemy iii. 3. § 8.</ref> now called the ''Isola dei Cavoli'' ("Cabbage Island" in Italian, ''Isula de is Càvurus'' "Crab Island" in Sardinian).

After the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]] Cagliari fell, together with the rest of Sardinia, into the hands of the [[Vandals]], but appears to have retained its importance throughout the Middle Ages.

[[File:SanpietroCA.jpg|thumb|180px|Saint Peter of the Fishermen church, 12th century. One of the few survived buildings of Santa Igia.]]

===Judicate of Cagliari===
{{Main|Judicate of Cagliari}}
[[File:Età bizantina, botteghe alto-giudicali sarde, plutei di san macario, da sant'efisio di nora, 950 dc ca. 01 grifo e pegaso tra albero della vita.jpg|thumb|left|Griffin and Pegasus pluteo, Byzantine Middle Ages. National Archaeological Museum of Cagliari.]]
Subsequently, ruled by the Vandals, [[Ostrogoths]], and then part of the [[Byzantine Empire]], Cagliari became the capital of a gradually independent [[Sardinian medieval kingdoms|Judicate]], (from Latin Iudex, Governor and Supreme Magistrate, used in late Roman and Byzantine period, along with the medieval Greek ἄρχων). This state was born around 1020 and was overthrown by the [[Republic of Pisa]] in 1258. Due to the overlap of buildings since the year 800 B.C., and the scarcity of archeological and historical informations, it was believed that the population was moved to more inland areas of the territory, along the lagoon, in a city called Santa Ilia or [[Santa Igia]] (modern San Gilla) and it was believed that the ancient Roman and Byzantine city had been abandoned because it was too exposed to attacks by [[Moors|Moorish]] pirates coming from north Africa and Spain. Recent studies have instead hypothesized that the capital of the Giudicato was located around the road that it directed towards [[Sassari]], today called Corso Vittorio Emanuele II (in Sardinian language: Su Brugu, the borough), although there are not yet archeological confirmations, particularly of the Cathedral and the Judex Palace, destroyed after the Pisan conquest.<ref>Corrado Zedda, 2017, Il Giudicato di Cagliari: storia, società, evoluzione e crisi di un regno sardo</ref><ref>Raimondo Pinna, 2010, Santa Igia. La Città del Giudice Guglielmo, edizioni Condaghes</ref> The Judicate of Cagliari comprised a large area of the Campidano plain, the [[Sulcis]]-[[Iglesiente]] and the mountain region of [[Ogliastra]].

===11th to 13th century===
[[File:TorreElefanteCagliari-pjt2.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Torre dell'Elefante]] (1307)]]
During the 11th century, the [[Republic of Pisa]] began to extend its political influence over the Judgedom of Cagliari. Pisa and the maritime [[republic of Genoa]] had a keen interest in Sardinia because it was a perfect strategic base for controlling the commercial routes between Italy and North Africa.

In 1215 the Pisan [[Lamberto Visconti]], husband of [[Elena of Gallura]], forced the judikessa [[Benedetta of Cagliari]] to give him the mount located east of [[Santa Igia]].{{sfn|Casula|1994|p=209-210}} Soon (1216–17) Pisan merchants established there a new fortified city, known as ''Castel di Castro'', which can be considered the ancestor of the modern city of Cagliari.{{sfn|Casula|1994|p=209-210}}

In 1258, after the defeat of [[William III of Cagliari|William III]], the last king of Cagliari, the Pisans and their Sardinian allies ([[Giudicato of Arborea|Arborea]], [[Giudicato of Gallura|Gallura]] and [[Giudicato of Logudoro|Logudoro]]) destroyed the old capital of Santa Igia.{{sfn|Casula|1994|p=209-210}} The Judgedom of Cagliari was then divided into three parts: the northeast third went to Gallura; the central portion was incorporated into Arborea; [[Sulcis]] and [[Iglesiente]], on the southwest, were given to the Pisan [[della Gherardesca]] family, while the Republic of Pisa maintained control over its colony of Castel di Castro.{{sfn|Casula|1994|p=210-212}}

Some of the fortifications that still surround the current district of Castello were built by the Pisans, including the two remaining white limestone towers (early 14th century) designed by the architect [[Giovanni Capula]]. Together with the district of Castello, Castel di Castro comprised the districts of [[Marina]] (which included the port), and later {{Interlanguage link|Stampace|it}} and Villanova. Marina and Stampace were guarded by walls, in contrast to Villanova, which was mostly home to peasants.

===14th to 17th centuries===
{{Main|Kingdom of Sardinia}}
In the second decade of the 14th century the [[Crown of Aragon]] [[Aragonese conquest of Sardinia|conquered Sardinia]] after a series of battles against the [[Pisa]]ns. During the siege of Castel di Castro (1324-1326), the Aragonese, led by [[Alfonso IV of Aragon]], built a stronghold on a more southern hill, that of Bonaria.
[[File:Braun_hogenberg_Cagliari_1572.jpg|thumb|View of Cagliari from ''Civitates orbis terrarium'' (1572) by [[Georg Braun]]]]
When the fortified city was finally conquered by the Aragonese army, Castel di Castro (''Castell de Càller'' or simply Càller in [[Catalan language|Catalan]]) became the administrative capital of the newborn [[Kingdom of Sardinia]], one of the many kingdoms forming the Crown of Aragon, which later came under the rule of the [[Spanish Empire]]. After the expulsion of the Tuscans,{{sfn|Casula|1994|p=304}} the Castello district was repopulated by the Aragonese settlers of Bonaria while the indigenous population was, as in the past, concentrated in Stampace and Villanova.

The [[kings of Sardinia]], also [[kings of Aragon]] and later [[kings of Spain]], were represented in Cagliari by a [[List of viceroys of Sardinia|viceroy]], who resided in the [[Palazzo Regio]].
[[File:PalazzoRegio3.jpg|thumb|Interior view of the [[Palazzo Regio|Royal Palace of Cagliari]].]]

In the 16th century the fortifications of the city were strengthened with the construction of the [[bastion]]s and the rights and benefits of the Aragonese were extended to all citizens. The intellectual life was relatively lively and in the early years of the 17th century the university was founded.

===18th century===
In 1718,<ref name="Guide to Cagliari">{{cite web|url=http://www.charmingsardinia.com/booksardegna/SARDINIA-Cagliari-Villasimius-Costa%20Rei-Oristano-2009.pdf |title=Guide to Cagliari, Villasimius, Costa Rei |work=CharmingSardinia |date=February 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090711085802/http://www.charmingsardinia.com/booksardegna/SARDINIA-Cagliari-Villasimius-Costa%20Rei-Oristano-2009.pdf |archive-date=11 July 2009 }}</ref> after a brief rule by the [[Habsburgs]], Cagliari and [[Sardinia]] came under the [[House of Savoy]]. As rulers of Sardinia, the Savoys took the title of kings of the Sardinian kingdom. During the Savoyard Era, until 1848, the institutions of the Sardinian kingdom remained unchanged, but with the "[[Perfect Fusion]]" in that year, all the possessions of the House of Savoy House, comprising [[Savoy]], [[Nice]] (now part of [[France]]), [[Piedmont]] and from 1815 [[Liguria]], were merged into a unitary state. Although Sardinian by name, the kingdom had its parliament in [[Turin]], where the Savoys resided, and its members were mainly aristocrats from [[Piedmont]] or the mainland.

In the late 18th century during the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] France tried to conquer Cagliari because of its strategic role in the Mediterranean sea (''[[Expédition de Sardaigne]]''). A French army landed on Poetto beach and advanced towards Cagliari, but the French were defeated by Sardinians who had decided to defend themselves against the revolutionary army. The people of Cagliari hoped to receive some concession from the Savoys in return for their defence of the town. For example, aristocrats from Cagliari asked for a Sardinian representative in the [[parliament]] of the kingdom. When the Savoyards refused any concession to the Sardinians, the inhabitants of Cagliari rose up against them and expelled all the representatives of the kingdom along with the Piedmontese rulers.{{sfn|Casula|1994|p=468}} This insurgence is celebrated in Cagliari during ''[[Sa die de sa Sardigna]]'' ("The day of Sardinia") on the last weekend of April. However, the Savoys regained control of the town after a brief period of [[autonomous entity|autonomous]] rule.

===Modern age===
[[File:CagliariBastioneRemy.jpg|thumb|Triumphal arch ''King Umberto I'', better known as ''Bastione Saint Remy'']]

The population by the 1840s had reached 29,000.<ref>''The National Cyclopaedia of Useful Knowledge, Vol.IV'', (1848), London, Charles Knight, p.12</ref> Starting in the 1870s, in the wake of the [[unification of Italy]], the city experienced a century of rapid growth. Numerous buildings combined influences from [[Art Nouveau]] together with the traditional Sardinian taste for floral decoration; an example is the [[white marble]] [[City Hall]] near the port. Many buildings were erected by the end of the 19th century during the term of office of mayor [[Ottone Bacaredda]].  In 1905 he had to face up to the a violent, bloody revolt against the exorbitant cost of living, stoked by his political opponents and which caused a number of victims and extensive material damage. After various other ups and downs, and following another resignation, he was returned to office between 1911 and 1917. Ottone Bacaredda died in his modest house in Via San Giovanni, on 26 December 1921,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017 |title=Bacaredda Ottone - Cimitero Monumentale di Bonaria - Cagliari |trans-title=Bacaredda Ottone - Monumental Cemetery of Bonaria - Cagliari |url=https://cimiterobonaria.it/scheda/b00002/ |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=Cimitero Monumentale Bonaria |language=en}}</ref>
 
During the [[Second World War]] Cagliari was heavily bombed by the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] in February 1943. In order to escape from the danger of [[bombardment]]s and difficult living conditions, many people were evacuated from the city into the countryside. In total the victims of the bombings were more than 2000<ref name="Bomb">{{cite web| url = http://www.comunecagliarinews.it/reportage.php?pagina=43| title = Comune Cagliari News, ''Bombe su Cagliari: cronologia di una strage''}}</ref> and about 80% of the buildings were damaged. The city received the [[Gold Medal of Military Valour]].<ref name="Bomb"/>

After the [[Armistice with Italy|Italian armistice]] with the Allies in September 1943, the [[Wehrmacht|German Army]] took control of Cagliari and the island, but soon retreated peacefully in order to reinforce their positions in mainland Italy. The [[United States Army|American Army]] then took control of Cagliari. Airports near the city ([[Elmas]], [[Monserrato]], [[Decimomannu]], currently a [[NATO]] airbase) were used by Allied aircraft to fly to North Africa or mainland Italy and [[Sicily]].

After the war, the population of Cagliari grew again and many apartment blocks and recreational areas were erected in new residential districts.

=== Coats of Arms of Cagliari ===
<gallery>
File:Stemma di Cagliari pisana.jpg|13th century 
File:Stemma del Comune di Cagliari-Corona d'Aragona.svg|From the 14th to 17th century 
File:Cagliari-Stemma.svg|From the 18th century to the present</gallery>