Editing British Somaliland (section)

==History==
===Treaties and establishment===
[[File:Somaliland clans.jpg|thumb|Map of British Somaliland]]
[[File:Map of Somaliland Protectorate.jpg|thumb|Map of the British Somaliland Protectorate.]]
[[File:Isaaq Chiefs Hargeisa.jpg|left|thumb|Sultans of the [[Isaaq]] clan in Hargeisa, Somaliland]]
[[File:Sultan Mohamoud Ali Shire 2.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|left|[[Mohamoud Ali Shire]] [[Sultan]] of the Warsangali clan]]

In the late 19th century, the [[United Kingdom]] signed agreements with the [[Gadabuursi]], [[Issa (clan)|Issa]], [[Habr Awal]], [[Garhajis]], [[Arap]] ,[[Habr Je'lo]] and [[Warsangali|Warsangeli]] clans establishing a protectorate.<ref name="EB1911"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Laitin |first=David D. |year=1977 |title=Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience |location=Chicago |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=978-0-226-46791-7 |page=8}}</ref><ref name="Issa-Salwe">{{cite book |first=Abdisalam M. |last=Issa-Salwe |title=The Collapse of the Somali State: The Impact of the Colonial Legacy |publisher=Haan Associates |year=1996 |isbn=1-874209-91-X |location=London |pages=34–35}}</ref> Many of these clans had signed the protection treaties with the British in response to Ethiopian Emperor [[Menelik's Invasions]]. The agreements dictated the protection of Somali rights and the maintenance of independence.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gorman |first=Robert F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YKlyAAAAMAAJ |title=Political Conflict on the Horn of Africa |date=1981 |publisher=Praeger |isbn=978-0-03-059471-7 |pages=29 |language=en |quote=Facing the Ethiopian threat, many Somali clans accepted British protection.}}</ref> The British garrisoned the protectorate from [[Aden Province|Aden]] and administered it from their [[British Indian Empire|British India]] colony until 1898. British Somaliland was then administered by the [[Foreign Office]] until 1905 and afterwards by the [[Colonial Office]].

Generally, the British did not have much interest in the resource-barren region.<ref>Samatar, Abdi Ismail  ''The State and Rural Transformation in Northern Somalia, 1884–1986'', Madison: 1989, University of Wisconsin Press, p. 31</ref> The stated purposes of the establishment of the protectorate were to "secure a supply market, check the traffic in slaves, and to exclude the interference of foreign powers."<ref>Samatar p. 31</ref> The British principally viewed the protectorate as a source for supplies of meat for their British Indian outpost in [[Colony of Aden|Aden]] through the maintenance of order in the coastal areas and protection of the caravan routes from the interior.<ref>Samatar, p. 32</ref> Hence, the region's nickname of "Aden's butcher's shop".<ref>Samatar, ''Unhappy Masses and the Challenge of Political Islam in the Horn of Africa'', Somalia Online [http://www.somaliaonline.com/cgi-bin/ubb/ultimatebb.cgi?ubb=get_topic;f=9;t=003299;p=0] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803081909/https://www.somaliaonline.com/community/?ubb=get_topic;f=9;t=003299;p=0|date=3 August 2023}} retrieved 10-03-27</ref> Colonial administration during this period did not extend administrative infrastructure beyond the coast,<ref>Samatar, ''The state and rural transformation in Northern Somalia''p. 42</ref> and contrasted with the more interventionist colonial experience of [[Italian Somalia]].<ref>{{cite news |first=Tristan |last=McConnell |title=The Invisible Country |work=Virginia Quarterly Review |date=15 January 2009 |url=http://www.pulitzercenter.org/openitem.cfm?id=2146 |access-date=27 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613171106/http://www.pulitzercenter.org/openitem.cfm?id=2146 |archive-date=13 June 2010 |df=dmy}}</ref>

===Dervish uprising===
{{Main|Dervish movement (Somali)}}

[[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-8-36.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|right|Aerial view of [[Mohammed Abdullah Hassan]]'s main fort in [[Taleh]], the capital of his [[Dervish movement (Somali)|Dervish movement]]]]

Beginning in 1899, the British were forced to expend considerable human and military capital to contain a decades-long resistance mounted by the [[Dervish movement (Somali)|Dervish movement]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ahHabajshuwC&q=Dervish+muslim+resistance+movement&pg=PA71 |title=State Collapse and Post-conflict Development in Africa: The Case of Somalia (1960-2001) |last=Mohamoud |first=Abdullah A. |date=2006 |publisher=Purdue University Press |isbn=9781557534132 |language=en |access-date=25 October 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803081916/https://books.google.com/books?id=ahHabajshuwC&q=Dervish+muslim+resistance+movement&pg=PA71 |url-status=live }}</ref> The movement was led by [[Sayyid]] [[Mohammed Abdullah Hassan]], a Somali religious leader referred to colloquially by the British as the "Mad Mullah".<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MU02oAEACAAJ |title=Mad Mullah of Somaliland |last=Jardine |first=Douglas James |date=2015-10-15 |publisher=Naval & Military Press |isbn=9781781519820 |language=en}}</ref> Repeated military expeditions were unsuccessfully launched against Hassan and his Dervishes before [[World War I]].

[[File:Somalia1911.png|thumb|upright=0.6|left|1911 map of [[Somaliland]] and [[Somalia]] showing British Somaliland and [[Italian Somaliland]]]]
On 9 August 1913, the Somaliland Camel Constabulary suffered a serious defeat at the [[Battle of Dul Madoba]] at the hands of the Dervishes. Hassan had already evaded several attempts to capture him. At Dul Madoba, his forces killed or wounded 57 members of the 110-man Constabulary unit, including the British commander, Colonel [[Richard Corfield]].

In 1914, the British created the [[Somaliland Camel Corps]] to assist in maintaining order in British Somaliland.

In 1920, the British launched their [[1920 conflict between British forces and Somaliland dervishes|fifth and final expedition]] against Hassan and his followers. Employing the then-new technology of military aircraft, the British finally managed to quell Hassan's twenty-year-long struggle. The British tricked Hassan into preparing for an official visit, then launched bombing raids in the city of [[Taleh]] where most of his troops were stationed, causing the mullah to retreat into the desert.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ross |first1=Sherwood |title=How the United States Reversed Its Policy on Bombing Civilians |url=https://www.questia.com/read/1G1-133755144 |publisher=The Humanist |access-date=11 September 2014 |archive-date=3 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803081917/https://www.gale.com/databases/questia |url-status=live }}</ref> Hassan and his Dervish supporters fled to the Ogaden, where Hassan died in 1921.<ref>Samatar, ''The state and rural transformation in Northern Somalia'', p. 39</ref>

===Somaliland Camel Corps===

{{Main|Somaliland Camel Corps}}

[[File:Engelse kameelruiters - English camel troopers.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|left|[[Somaliland Camel Corps]] between [[Berbera]] and [[Odweyne]] in 1913.]]
The [[Somaliland Camel Corps]], also referred to as the Somali Camel Corps, was a unit of the [[British Army]] based in British Somaliland. It lasted from the early 20th century until 1944. The troopers of the Somaliland Camel Corps had a distinctive dress. It was based on the standard British Army [[khaki drill]] but included a knitted woollen pullover and drill patches on the shoulders. Shorts were worn with woollen socks on [[puttees]] and "chaplis", boots or bare feet. Equipment consisted of leather ammunition [[bandolier]] and a leather waist belt. The officers wore [[pith helmets]] and khaki drill uniforms. Other ranks wore a "kullah" with "[[pagri (turban)|puggree]]" which ended in a long tail which hung down the back.<ref>Mollo, p. 139</ref> A "chaplis" is typically a colourful sandal. A "kullah" is a type of cap. A "puggree" is typically a strip of cloth wound around the upper portion of a hat or helmet, particularly a pith helmet, and falling down from behind to act as a shade for the back of the neck.

===British Somaliland 1920–1930===
[[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-3-179.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|right|Market in [[Hargeisa]].]]
Following the defeat of the Dervish resistance, the two fundamental goals of British policy in British Somaliland were the preservation of stability and the economic self-sufficiency of the protectorate.<ref>Samatar, p. 45</ref> The second goal remained particularly elusive because of local resistance to taxation that might have been used to support the protectorate's administration.<ref>Samatar, p. 46</ref> By the 1930s, the British presence had extended to other parts of British Somaliland. Growth in commercial trade motivated some livestock herders to subsequently leave the pastoral economy and settle in urban areas.<ref>Samatar, pp. 52–53</ref> [[Customs|Customs taxes]] also helped pay for British India's patrol of Somalia's [[Red Sea]] Coast.<ref name=LOC>{{cite web |last=Ofcansky and LaVerle Berry |first=Thomas P. |title=Ethiopia in World War II |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+et0030) |work=A Country Study: Ethiopia |publisher=Library of Congress |access-date=11 January 2014 |archive-date=29 October 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041029171751/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+et0030) |url-status=live }}</ref>

Among military units in British Somaliland during the interwar period was a battalion of the Indian Army [[4th Bombay Grenadiers]].<ref>Sharma, Gautam (1990). Valour and sacrifice: famous regiments of the Indian Army. Allied Publishers. ISBN 81-7023-140-X, 75.</ref>

===Italian invasion===
{{Further|East African campaign (World War II)|Italian invasion of British Somaliland}}
In August 1940, during the [[East African campaign (World War II)|East African campaign]] in [[World War II]], British Somaliland was invaded by Italy. The few British forces that were present attempted to defend the main road to Berbera, but were dislodged from their positions and retreated after losing the [[Battle of Tug Argan]]. During this period, the British rounded up soldiers and governmental officials to evacuate them from the territory through Berbera. In total, 7,000 people, including civilians, were evacuated.<ref name="Playfair178">Playfair (1954), p. 178</ref> The Somalis serving in the [[Somaliland Camel Corps]] were given the choice of evacuation or disbandment; the majority chose to remain and were allowed to retain their arms.<ref name="Wavell2724">Wavell, [http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/37594/pages/2724 p. 2724] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109205827/http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/37594/pages/2724 |date=9 November 2013 }}</ref>

In March 1941, after a six-month Italian occupation, British forces recaptured the protectorate during [[Operation Appearance]]. The final remnants of the [[Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia|Italian guerrilla movement]] discontinued all resistance in British Somaliland by the autumn of 1943.

===1945 Sheikh Bashir rebellion===
{{main|1945 Sheikh Bashir rebellion}}
[[File:Sheikh Bashir praying.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Sheikh Bashir praying [[Sunnah prayer]], 1920]]
The 1945 Sheikh Bashir Rebellion was an uprising by tribesmen of the [[Habr Je'lo]] clan in the cities of [[Burao]] and [[Erigavo]] in the former British Somaliland protectorate against British authorities in July 1945 led by [[Sheikh Bashir]], a [[Somalis|Somali]] religious leader belonging to the Yeesif sub-division.<ref name=":0">{{Cite thesis |title=Constructing colonial hegemony in the Somaliland protectorate, 1941-1960 |url=https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/handle/1807/14169 |date=1996 |degree=Thesis |language=en-US |first=Jama |last=Mohamed |access-date=2 June 2021 |archive-date=2 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602213326/https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/handle/1807/14169 |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 2 July, Sheikh Hamza collected 25 of his followers in the town of [[Wadamago]] and transported them on a lorry to the vicinity of [[Burao]], where he distributed arms to half of his followers. On the evening of 3 July the group entered Burao and opened fire on the police guard of the central prison in the city, which was filled with prisoners arrested for previous demonstrations. The group also attacked the house of the district commissioner of [[Burao District]], Major Chambers, resulting in the death of Major Chamber's police guard before escaping to Bur Dhab, a strategic mountain south-east of Burao, where Sheikh Bashir's small unit occupied a fort and took up a defensive position in anticipation of a British counterattack.<ref>{{Cite book |last=of Rodd |first=Lord Rennell |title=British Military Administration in Africa 1941–1947 |publisher=HMSO |year=1948 |pages=481}}</ref>

The British campaign against Sheikh Hamza troops proved abortive after several defeats as his forces kept on the move. No sooner had the expedition left the area, than the news travelled fast among the Somali nomads across the plain. The war had exposed the British administration to humiliation. The government came to a conclusion that another expedition against him would be useless; that they must build a railway, make roads and effectively occupy the whole of the protectorate, or else abandon the interior. The latter course was decided upon and during the first months of 1945, the advance posts were withdrawn and the British administration confined to the coast town of [[Berbera]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Taariikhdii Halgamaa: Sheekh Bashiir Sh. Yuusuf. W/Q: Prof Yaxye Sheekh Caamir {{!}} Laashin iyo Hal-abuur |date=11 January 2018 |url=https://laashin.com/taariikhdii-halgamaa-sheekh-bashiir-sh-yuusuf-wq-prof-yaxye-sheekh-caamir/ |access-date=2021-05-31 |language=en-US |archive-date=18 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818010238/https://laashin.com/taariikhdii-halgamaa-sheekh-bashiir-sh-yuusuf-wq-prof-yaxye-sheekh-caamir/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Sheikh Bashir settled many disputes among the tribes in the vicinity, which kept them from raiding each other. He was generally thought to settle disputes through the use of Islamic [[Sharia]] and gathered around him a strong following.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Sheekh Caamir |first=Prof. Yaxye |date=11 January 2018 |title=Taariikhdii Halgamaa: Sheekh Bashiir Sh. Yuusuf |journal=Laashin}}</ref>

Sheikh Bashir sent a message to religious figures in the town of [[Erigavo]] and called on them to revolt and join the rebellion he led. The religious leaders as well as the people of Erigavo heeded his call, and mobilized a substantial number of people armed with rifles and spears and staged a revolt. The British authorities responded rapidly and severely, sending reinforcements to the town and opening fire on the armed mobs in two "local actions" as well as arresting minor religious leaders in the town.<ref>{{Cite book |last=of Rodd |first=Lord Rennell |title=British Military Administration in Africa 1941–1947 |publisher=HMSO |year=1948 |pages=482}}</ref>

The British administration recruited [[India]]n and [[South Africa]]n troops, led by police general James David, to fight against Sheikh Bashir and had intelligence plans to capture him alive. The British authorities mobilized a police force, and eventually on 7 July found Sheikh Bashir and his unit in defensive positions behind their fortifications in the mountains of Bur Dhab. After clashes Sheikh Bashir and his second-in-command, Alin Yusuf Ali, nicknamed Qaybdiid, were killed. A third rebel was wounded and was captured along with two other rebels. The rest fled the fortifications and dispersed. On the British side the police general leading the British troops as well as a number of Indian and South African troops perished in the clashes, and a policeman was injured.

Despite the death of Sheikh Hamza and his followers resistance against British authorities continued in Somaliland, especially in Erigavo where his death stirred further resistance in the town and the town of [[Badhan, Sanaag|Badhan]] and lead to attacks on British colonial troops throughout the district and the seizing of arms from the rural constabulary.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mohamed |first=Jama |date=2002 |title='The Evils of Locust Bait': Popular Nationalism during the 1945 Anti-Locust Control Rebellion in Colonial Somaliland |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3600720 |journal=Past & Present |issue=174 |pages=184–216 |doi=10.1093/past/174.1.184 |jstor=3600720 |issn=0031-2746 |access-date=2 June 2021 |archive-date=19 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119032047/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3600720 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The British authorities was not finished with the rebels even after most of them had died and continued its counter-insurgency campaign. The authorities had quickly learned the names and identities of all the followers of Sheikh Bashir and tried to convince the locals to turn them in. When they refused, the authorities invoked the ''Collective Punishment Ordinance'', under which the authorities seized and impounded a total of 6,000 camels owned by the [[Habr Je'lo]], the clan that Sheikh Bashir belonged to. The British authorities made the return of the livestock dependent on the turning over and arrest of the escaped rebels.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Annual Colonial Office Report on the Somaliland Protectorate, 1948 |pages=31}}</ref> The remaining rebels were subsequently found and arrested, and transported to the [[Zeila Archipelago|Saad-ud-Din archipelago]], off the coast of [[Zeila]] in northwestern Somaliland.

===Independence and union with the Trust Territory of Somaliland===
{{Main|State of Somaliland|Independence Day (State of Somaliland)|Somali Republic|Independence Day (Somalia)}}
[[File:Independence Day State of Somaliland.png|upright|thumb|Agreements and Exchanges of Letters between the Government of the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]] and the Government of [[State of Somaliland|Somaliland]] in connexion with the Attainment of Independence by Somaliland<ref>{{cite web | title=Agreements and Exchanges of Letters between the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of Somaliland in connexion with the Attainment of Independence by Somaliland | publisher=Her Majesty's Stationery Office | location=[[London]] | date=26 June 1960 | url=http://foto.archivalware.co.uk/data/Library2/pdf/1960-TS0044.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201114113151/http://foto.archivalware.co.uk/data/Library2/pdf/1960-TS0044.pdf | archive-date=14 November 2020 }}</ref>]]
[[File:The Somaliland Protectorate Constitutional Conference, London.png|upright=0.8|thumb|The Somaliland Protectorate Constitutional Conference, [[London]], May 1960 in which it was decided that 26 June would be the day of Independence, and so signed on 12 May 1960. Somaliland Delegation: [[Mohamed Haji Ibrahim Egal]], Ahmed Haji Dualeh, Ali Garad Jama and Haji Ibrahim Nur. From the Colonial Office: [[Ian Macleod]], [[Sir Douglas Hall, 14th Baronet|D. B. Hall]], H. C. F. Wilks (Secretary)]]
In 1947, the entire budget for the administration of the British Somaliland protectorate was only £213,139.<ref name=LOC/>

In May 1960, the [[British Government]] stated that it would be prepared to grant independence to the then Somaliland protectorate. The Legislative Council of British Somaliland passed a resolution in April 1960 requesting independence. The legislative councils of the territory agreed to this proposal.<ref>[http://wardheernews.com/Articles_09/June/Roobdoon_Forum/29_Independence_week_series.html Somali Independence Week] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928052641/http://wardheernews.com/Articles_09/June/Roobdoon_Forum/29_Independence_week_series.html |date=28 September 2011 }}</ref>

In April 1960, leaders of the two territories met in Mogadishu and agreed to form a unitary state. An elected president was to be head of state. Full executive powers would be held by a prime minister answerable to an elected National Assembly of 123 members representing the two territories.

On 26 June 1960, the British Somaliland protectorate gained independence as the [[State of Somaliland]].  Five days later on 1 July 1960 Somaliland officially merged with the Trust Territory of Somaliland to create the [[Somali Republic]].<ref name="Wssom1"/><ref name="EB1911"/>

On 1 July 1960 the legislature elected [[Haji Bashir]], the old speaker of the Somaliland Assembly, as the first President of the new Republic of Somalia National Assembly, and also on that same day [[Aden Adde]] was elected as the President of the newly formed Somali Republic.