Editing Boley, Oklahoma (section)

==History==
=== Background ===
[[Creek Freedmen]] in the [[Indian territory|Indian Territory]], who were the descendents of Black slaves held by the [[Muscogee Nation|Creek tribe]] and alloted 160 acres of land each as a result of the [[Dawes Commission]], set up independent townships, of which Boley was one.<ref name="simpson">{{cite web |last1=Simpson |first1=April |title=In Oklahoma's Black Belt, land ownership and power built Black wealth |url=https://publicintegrity.org/inequality-poverty-opportunity/the-heist/boley-oklahoma-land-ownership-black-wealth/ |publisher=The Center for Public Integrity |access-date=14 February 2025}}</ref> The town was established on land owned by Abigail Barnett, the daughter of a Creek Freedman.<ref name="EOHC-Boley">{{cite web|url= https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry?entry=BO008 |title=Boley|publisher=Larry O’Dell, Oklahoma Historical Society|accessdate=March 20, 2024}}</ref><ref name="stuckey" />

As Boley and its surrounding area already possessed a well-established and independent Black community, many [[Black Southerners#Civil War and Jim Crow era|Black Southerners]] who eventually emigrated there perceived the town as a safe haven from the South's [[Sharecropping#United States|limited economic opportunities]], white supremacist paramilitaries (e.g. [[White League]], [[Red Shirts (United States)|Red Shirts]], and the [[Ku Klux Klan]]), and [[Black codes|discriminatory laws]] re-imposed at the [[Nadir of American race relations|collapse of Reconstruction]].<ref name="stuckey" /><ref name="gates">{{cite book |last=Gates |first=Henry Louis |author-link=Henry Louis Gates |title=Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience |publisher=[[Basic Civitas Books]] |year=1999 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/africanaencyclop00appi/page/722 722] |isbn=0-465-00071-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/africanaencyclop00appi/page/722 }}</ref>

===Town founding===
[[File:Boley Town Council circa 1907.jpg|thumb|Boley town council {{circa|1907}}. {{break}}Thomas Haynes, wearing the light colored jacket, is in the first row, third from the right. Standing beside Haynes, with his hands in his pockets, is David Turner.]]
[[File:J.B. Boley, namesake of Boley, Oklahoma, in 1902.png|thumb|Photograph of J. B. Boley {{circa|1902}}.]]
The principal founder of Boley was Thomas M. Haynes.<ref name="stuckey">{{cite journal |last1=Stuckey |first1=Melissa |title=Boley, Indian Territory: Exercising Freedom in the All-Black Town |journal=The Journal of African American History |date=2017 |volume=102 |issue=4 |pages=492–516 |doi=10.5323/jafriamerhist.102.4.0492}}</ref> Lake Moore, a white speculator, contributed the initial $500 investment needed to lease Barnett's land for five years. Another influential figure was the town's namesake, J. B.  Boley, a white official of the [[Fort Smith and Western Railway|Fort Smith & Western Railroad]] who oversaw the development of a depot in the middle of Boley.<ref name="EOHC-Boley"/><ref name="horcher">{{cite web |last1=Horcher |first1=Gary |title=Boley |url=https://www.oklahoman.com/story/news/1999/08/07/boley/62233167007/ |publisher=The Oklahoman |access-date=13 February 2025}}</ref> After being approved for a [[United States Post Office Department|post office]] two months prior in July, the town officially opened for settlement on September 26, 1903.<ref name="stuckeydiss">{{cite thesis |last=Stuckey|first=Melissa N.|year=2009|title= All Men Up: Race, Rights, and Power in the All-Black Town of Boley, Oklahoma, 1903-1939 |type=PhD dissertation |publisher=Yale University}}</ref>

One of the most influential early settlers in Boley was David J. Turner, a businessman who would, besides serving as town mayor and councilman on multiple occasions, also work as a bank president and pharmacist.<ref name="stuckeydiss" /> Another important settler was Hilliard Taylor, who developed a thriving [[cotton gin]]ning business.<ref name="stuckey" />

The development of the railroad brought traffic and allowed agricultural land to be more profitably used as a townsite.  Property owned by the Barnett family, among other Creek [[Freedmen]], was midway between [[Paden, Oklahoma|Paden]] and [[Castle, Oklahoma|Castle]], and ideal for a station stop.  With the approval of the railroad management, Boley, [[Creek Nation]], [[Indian Territory]] was incorporated in 1905. During the early part of the 20th century, Boley became a regional business hub and one of the wealthiest Black towns in the US. It boasted two banks,<ref name="BlackHistory">{{cite web | url= https://www.tulsaworld.com/news/local/black-history-month-boley-once-boasted-more-than-residents/article_bd9b4436-e7fc-55cd-a142-5f4d1c953c78.html| title= Black History Month: Boley once boasted more than 4,000 residents | date= February 4, 2020 | publisher= Tim Stanley, Tulsa World, February 4, 2020 | access-date=February 4, 2020}}</ref> including the first nationally-chartered Black-owned bank, three cotton gins,<ref name="BlackHistory"/> its own electric company,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.boley-ok.com/B3.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080412070255/http://www.boley-ok.com/B3.html|url-status=dead|title=Boley, Oklahoma, C. Sharp & Associates Inc., 2000|archivedate=April 12, 2008|accessdate=July 25, 2021}}</ref> a movie theater, hotels, and multiple legal and [[dentistry]] practices.<ref name="BWST" /> The town had over 4,000 residents by 1911, and was the home of two colleges: Creek-Seminole College, and Methodist Episcopal College. The [[Freemasonry|Masonic Lodge]] was called "the tallest building between Okmulgee and Oklahoma City," when it was built in 1912.<ref name="EOHC-Boley"/>

===O. H. Bradley and ''The Boley Progress''===
{{Quote box
 | quote  = We in the Creek Nation especially in and around Boley speak boastfully of our liberty, our opportunities, our prosperity and advancement, we are really free, we are truly prosperous . . . and are enjoying all the rights and privileges accorded every other American citizen in the broadest term. . . . COME AND SEE.
 | source = — O. H. Bradley, ''Boley Progress'' (March 23, 1905)
 | width  = 40%
 | align  = right
}}
One of the town's largest weekly newspapers, ''The'' ''Boley Progress'', was established in 1905. It promoted the town to African Americans in the American South, and specialized in reporting Southern news.<ref name="stuckey" /><ref name="stuckeydiss" /> In its debut issue, the ''Progress'' coined Boley the "Haven of the Negro."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bradley |first1=O. H. |title=Boley the Colored Town and Haven of the Negro |url=https://gateway.okhistory.org/ark:/67531/metadc2042020/m1/1/ |issue=1 |publisher=The Boley Progress |date=9 March 1905}}</ref> An annual subscription initially cost $1.

Under the editorship of Oniel H. Bradley, the motto of the ''Progress'' was "All Men Up, Not Some Down."<ref name="stuckeywomen">{{cite book |last1=Stuckey |first1=Melissa |chapter= Freedom on Her Own Terms: California M. Taylor and Black Womanhood in Boley, Oklahoma  | editor-last = Janda |editor-first = Sarah Eppler |editor2-last = Loughlin |editor2-first = Patricia |title= This Land Is Herland: Gendered Activism in Oklahoma from the 1870s to The 2010s |year = 2021 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=0-8061-7864-7 |pages = 125–144 }}</ref> Bradley promoted an [[Black nationalism|"emancipationist vision"]] of Boley, portraying the town as a place where Black southerners could escape discrimination and finally enjoy a real freedom to serve as "business men, farmers, merchants, and wage workers," free from the [[Lynching in the United States|antagonism of hostile white mobs]].<ref name="stuckeywomen" /> Additionally, Bradley believed that flourishing and well-governed black towns like Boley would help alleviate the nation's "racial problem" and counter [[Stereotypes of African Americans|negative stereotypes of Black Americans]].<ref name="stuckeydiss" /> Subscribers across the South were informed about Boley's local economy, population growth,  political elections, investment opportunities, and more. As a result of his promotional efforts, Bradley attracted Black settlers from diverse social backgrounds, ranging from farmers to college-educated professionals.<ref name="stuckeydiss" />

In the fall of 1905, Bradley's ''Progress'' persuaded Joe P. Thompson, a devout reader from [[Rusk, Texas]], to organize an emigration of approximately fifty Black families from his community to the area around Boley.<ref name=stuckey /> Reflecting upon Boley's ballooning growth in its initial years, early settler Hallie Smith Jones remarked that "people came to Boley by train loads. In some instances eight and ten families would alight from the same train. Their luggage would fill the depot platform and would be piled six and seven feet high."<ref name="stuckeydiss" />

===Womanhood in Boley===
[[File:Postcard of three unidentified women in Boley, Oklahoma 1918.png|thumb|Three unidentified women in Boley {{circa|1918}}.]]
Black women served many valuable roles within the town, such as  entrepreneurs, farmers, schoolteachers, tours guides for prospective settlers, and, of course, as loyal wives and mothers rearing future generations of Black children.<ref name = "stuckeywomen" />

Single-sex (women-exclusive) organizations committed to progressive principles sprouted up in Boley. For instance, the Ladies Industrial Club, founded in October 1908, was involved in various community service projects,  playing a significant role in the creation of the town's public library.<ref name ="stuckeywomen" /> California M. Taylor, who was renowned for her work as a [[notary public]] and later as a pharmacist, was an influential leader in Boley's [[NAACP]] branch.<ref name ="stuckeywomen" /> 
[[File:Pearl C. Owens of Boley, Oklahoma ad.png|thumb|Advertisement in April 1, 1926 issue of ''The Boley Progress'' placed by businesswoman Pearl C. Owens]]

===Black self-sufficiency===
[[File:Boley Main Street Looking North undated.png|thumb|left|Main Street, facing north.]]
[[Booker T. Washington]] visited Boley in 1905, and was so impressed that he included Boley in his speeches; black-towns like Boley embodied "the path of advancement," as they provided opportunities for self-governance, moral upliftment, and the development of useful leadership and industrial skills.<ref name="crockett">{{cite web |last1=Crockett |first1=Norman L. |title=Witness to History: Booker T. Washington Visits Boley |url=https://gateway.okhistory.org/ark:/67531/metadc2031618/ |website=The Gateway to Oklahoma History |publisher=Oklahoma Historical Society |access-date=12 February 2025}}</ref> However,  he also worried that separation from whites, if carried to the extreme, would be detrimental to black communities in the long-run. [[George Washington Carver]] once called Boley "the most progressive black town in the U.S."<ref name="horcher" />

Boley became notorious for its [[sundown town]] signage, subverting whites-only norms, for reading, "White man, don't let the sun set on you here."<ref>{{Cite news |date=February 2, 1925 |title=Seek Cause of Death of Three Near Okfuskee |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/592415527/ |location=[[Okemah, Oklahoma]] |newspaper=Drumright Weekly Derrick |page=1 |via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref> The sign was removed by federal agents in 1924.<ref>{{Cite news |date=December 13, 1924 |title=Loses "Welcome" Sign |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/838765589/ |location=[[Henryetta, Oklahoma]] |newspaper=The Oklahoma Courier |page=5 |via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref>

===Disenfranchisement and racial tensions===
{{Further|Nadir of American race relations}}
{{Quote box
 | quote  = Say have you heard the story<br> Of the little Colored town;<br> Way over in the Nation<br> On such lovely sloping ground?<br> With as pretty little houses<br> As you ever chanced to meet,<br> With not a thing but Colored folks<br> A standing on the streets?<br> O ‘tis a pretty country <br>And the Negroes own it too;<br> With not a single white man here<br> To tell us what to do<br>In Boley.
 | source = — E. J. Pinkett, ''Boley Progress'' (May 11, 1905)
 | width  = 25%
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}}
Upon becoming the 46th U.S. state on November 16, 1907, [[Jim Crow laws|Jim Crow segregation laws]] were added to Oklahoma's state constitution, largely due to the efforts of white [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] [[William H. Murray]]<ref name="stuckey" /><ref name="luckerson">{{cite web |last1=Luckerson |first1=Victor |title=The Promise of Oklahoma: How the push for statehood led a beacon of racial progress to oppression and violence |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/unrealized-promise-oklahoma-180977174/ |publisher=Smithsonian Magazine |access-date=13 February 2025}}</ref> Shortly after statehood came [[Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era|disenfranchisement]], most significantly through the passing of a "grandfather clause" which stipulated that anyone whose ancestors lacked the right to vote prior to 1866 (i.e. slaves) would be subject to a literacy test.<ref name="luckerson" /> Historically, the solidly-[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] black population of Boley held the balance of political power in Okfuscee County, as nearby white towns were split between the two parties.<ref name="crockett" />

In mid-1911, within the tense atmosphere generated by the [[Lynching of Laura and L. D. Nelson|lynching of Laura and L.D. Nelson]] in the nearby town of [[Okemah, Oklahoma|Okemah]], the county seat of Okfuskee County, a rumor circulated that the black residents in and around Boley were arming themselves to conduct a retaliatory attack.<ref name="stuckeydiss" /> During the night of the predicted engagement, the white citizens of Okemah developed an elaborate defense system and prepared for battle. However, no fighting ever occurred, presumably because Boley's black community had hunkered down themselves to protect their town.<ref name="stuckeydiss" />

In October 1911, a "State Convention of Black Men and Women"  was hosted in Boley, organized by local black [[clergy]]men.<ref name="stuckeydiss" /> The conservative, central message of the meeting was to advocate to neighboring white communities the specific distinction between Blacks who possess "respectable standing in his community" and those who embody the "vicious element of the race."<ref name="stuckeydiss" /> In an attempt to sooth racial tensions and prevent future mob violence, the convention sought to convince white audiences that the law-abiding Black middle-class would be willing to join arms with their white neighbors in condemning the lowly Black "criminal."

===1932 bank raid of Pretty Boy Floyd's gang ===
[[File:Boley Farmers and Merchants Bank.jpg|thumb|David Turner standing on the steps of the Farmers and Merchants Bank, the first Black-owned bank with a national charter in the U.S.<ref name="BWST">{{cite web |title=Legacy and Tradition of America's Black-owned Banks of Okla. |url=https://theblackwallsttimes.com/2023/09/01/legacy-and-tradition-of-americas-black-owned-banks-of-okla/ |website=The Black Wall Street Times |access-date=26 February 2025}}</ref>]]
In November 1932, three members belonging to the gang of the notorious outlaw [[Pretty Boy Floyd]] attempted to rob Boley's Farmers and Merchants Bank, but were thwarted by the town's citizens.<ref name="samepassage">{{cite web |title=Boley, Oklahoma: The All-Black Town That Fought Back Against "Pretty Boy Floyd's Gangsters |url=https://samepassage.org/boley-oklahoma-the-all-black-town-that-fought-back-against-pretty-boy-floyds-gangsters/ |website=Same Passage |access-date=26 February 2025}}</ref><ref name="apnews">{{cite web |title=Restoration hopes for bank targeted by infamous bank robbers |url=https://apnews.com/general-news-40e3480a52f944feb203d2dc39735ae6 |publisher=AP News |access-date=26 February 2025}}</ref><ref name="Primeaux">{{cite web |last1=Primeaux-Shaw |first1=Sache |title=#BlackExcellence: The Story of D.J. Turner and His Success |url=https://medium.com/@feistysince87/black-excellence-the-story-of-d-j-turner-and-his-success-ad84868820e7 |website=Medium |access-date=26 February 2025}}</ref> Floyd had previously warned his men not to attack Boley due to its residents being well-armed, but the interracial trio ignored the message.<ref name="apnews" /><ref name="stuckeydiss" />

George Birdwell, the trio's ringleader, and C.C. Patterson broke into the bank while Charles "Pete" Glass, a Black man who knew the town, waited in the getaway vehicle.<ref name="Raymond">{{cite web |last1=Raymond |first1=Ken |title=Boley, once a great town,has struggled in recent years to regain the sparkle that made it Oklahoma's “Crown Jewel” |url=https://theokeagle.com/2017/06/07/boley-once-a-great-townhas-struggled-in-recent-years-to-regain-the-sparkle-that-made-it-oklahomas-crown-jewel/ |website=The Oklahoma Eagle |access-date=26 February 2025}}</ref> While Birdwell and Patterson emptied the register of all cash, the bank's president, David Turner, who was on duty at the time, sounded the alarm to alert the townspeople.<ref name="samepassage" /><ref name="Primeaux" /> Herbert C. McCormick, an assistant cashier who had been hiding in the bank vault with a rifle, then proceeded to shoot Birdwell.<ref name="stuckeydiss" /> Birdwell managed to  fire multiple shots into Turner before collapsing onto the bank's floor.<ref name="stuckeydiss" /> However, the chronology of  what transpired inside the bank is not completely clear, as some accounts contend that an infuriated Birdwell shot Turner after discovering that he had pulled the alarm, which then caused McCormick to open fire on Birdwell.<ref name="samepassage" /><ref name="savage">{{cite journal |last1=Savage, Jr. |first1=William J. |title=The Killing of George Birdwell: A Reconsideration |journal=Chronicles of Oklahoma |date=2003 |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=231–237 |url=https://gateway.okhistory.org/ark:/67531/metadc1725782/ |access-date=26 February 2025}}</ref>

Patterson shuffled out of the bank and attempted to flee to the getaway vehicle, but he had now come face-to-face with Boley's armed citizenry, who had grabbed whatever weapons they could find, including guns, screwdrivers, and tools.<ref name="stuckeydiss" /><ref name="Raymond" /> Though Patterson was "riddled with bullets," he miraculously survived and was arrested by Boley sheriff Joseph Langston McCormick, the brother of the bank worker who had shot Birdwell.<ref name="stuckeydiss" /><ref name="Raymond" /> Glass, hearing the gunfire, had exited the car and made his way towards the bank to help his fellow bandits, but upon seeing Patterson collapse from his wounds, desperately scrambled back towards the vehicle.<ref name="savage" /> While attempting to drive away, Glass was shot dead. The townspeople had successfully foiled the attempted heist.
{{Quote box
 | quote  = One now sees that George Birdwell died on two different days in two different years in three different towns from four fatal wounds in four different parts of his body, all caused by a single bullet fired from three (or possibly four) different weapons...all of this occurring either before or after Birdwell shot the bank president four or six or [as one witnessed claimed] not at all.
 | source = — William Savage Jr., ''Chronicles of Oklahoma'' (2003)<ref name="savage" />
 | width  = 35%
 | align  = right
}}
Tragically, David Turner, who had dedicated decades of his life towards Boley's development, perished in the arms of his wife as he was in transit to the hospital in Okemah.<ref name="stuckeydiss" />  Now the [[Governor of Oklahoma]], [[William H. Murray]], the very same man who sought to destroy the independence of Black-towns like Boley decades prior, sent his official condolences; thousands of people from around the state went to Boley to attend Turner's funeral.<ref name="stuckeydiss" /> The Farmers and Merchants Bank was closed shortly thereafter.

As historian William Savage Jr. notes, several conflicting narratives of the robbery attempt had unfortunately sprung up in the ensuing decades, demonstrating [[false memory|the shortcomings of relying upon human recollection]].<ref name="savage" /> The most egregious differences in accounts relate to how Birdwell died (including how many times he was shot and by whom) and the details about what specific gun Herbert McCormick used.<ref name="savage" />

===Decline===
Boley's development paralleled that of the [[Fort Smith and Western Railway|Fort Smith & Western Railway]], which went bankrupt during the [[Great Depression]] and ceased operations in 1939. Additionally, Boley's economy was heavily dependent on [[Cotton|cotton farming]], which often created long-lasting debt for its producers  and, from the 1920s, suffered from recurrent [[boll weevil]] infestations.<ref name="simpson" /><ref name="crockett" />  The [[Dust Bowl]] of the 1930s also encouraged families to move out of Boley.<ref name="stuckey" /> As economic opportunities dried up, some of Boley's black population migrated to [[Canada]] and [[Back-to-Africa movement|Western Africa]], but most ended up moving to larger cities in search of better job prospects.<ref name="crockett" /> Before World War II, Boley's population had declined to about 700.<ref name="EOHC-Boley"/> With the [[Second Great Migration (African American)|Second Great Migration]] underway, by 1960 most of the population had left for other urban areas.<ref name="books.google.com">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i2DbXFLHjckC&q=booker+washington+boley&pg=PA136|title=Booker T. Washington and the Adult Education Movement|first=Virginia Lantz|last=Denton|date=July 25, 1993|publisher=University Press of Florida|isbn=9780813011820|accessdate=July 25, 2021|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzjyLeNnZr8C&q=Abigail+Barnett+boley&pg=PA179|title=Integration or Separation? A Strategy for Racial Equality|first1=Roy L.|last1=BROOKS|date=June 30, 2009|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674028852|accessdate=July 25, 2021|via=Google Books}}</ref>  So far the [[New Great Migration]] has not benefited Boley.  However, Boley remains one of the state's few remaining historic African-American towns and its 2020 population of 1,091 is a 258% improvement compared to its population of 423 just four decades prior.<ref name="EOHC-Boley"/><ref name="BlackHistory"/>

===Timeline===
[[File:Boley Masonic Temple.png|thumb|Three-story [[Freemasonry|Masonic Lodge]], constructed in 1912.]]
1897, by this time Oklahoma law required black children to be educated separately from white children<ref name=crow>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/scripts/jimcrow/insidesouth.cgi?state=Oklahoma|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927133753/http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/scripts/jimcrow/insidesouth.cgi?state=Oklahoma|url-status=dead|title=Jim Crow Laws: Oklahoma|archivedate=September 27, 2011|accessdate=July 25, 2021}}</ref>
* 1903 Founding<ref name="EOHC-Boley"/>
* 1905 [[Booker T. Washington]] tours the newly incorporated Boley.  Newspaper ''The Boley Progress'' starts publication.<ref>[http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83025077/ ''Boley Progress''], Library of Congress</ref>
* 1925, State Training School for Incorrigible Black Boys was located in Boley; it would become the John Lilley Correctional Center.
* 1926 ''The Boley Progress'' ceases publication.
* 1932 Armed citizens of Boley thwart a bank robbery attempt by members of [[Pretty Boy Floyd]]'s gang.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1546/is_n6_v9/ai_16646685|title=American Visions: Boley's bank robbed! - famous 1923 bank robbery in the all-black town of Boley, Oklahoma - includes related article about the history of Boley|date=January 27, 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050127022250/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1546/is_n6_v9/ai_16646685|accessdate=July 25, 2021|archive-date=January 27, 2005}}</ref>
* 1939 [[Fort Smith and Western Railway|Fort Smith & Western Railroad]] and Boley go bankrupt.
* 1975 [[Boley Historic District]] given landmark status.

===Inscription on Oklahoma Historical Society plaque honoring Boley===
Boley, Oklahoma
Est. August 1903 - Inc. May 1905
Boley, [[Creek Nation]], [[Indian Territory|I.T.]], Established as all black town on land of Creek Indian [[Freedwoman]] Abigail Barnett. Organized by T.M. Haynes first townsite manager.  Named for J.B. Boley, white roadmaster, who convinced [[Fort Smith and Western Railway|Fort Smith & Western Railroad]] that blacks could govern themselves.  This concept soon boosted population to 4,200.  Declared [[National Historic Landmark District]] by Congress May 15, 1975. [[Oklahoma Historical Society]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lwfaam.net/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100713200443/http://www.lwfaam.net/images/boley.jpg|url-status=dead|title=african american &#124; military history|archivedate=July 13, 2010|accessdate=July 25, 2021}}</ref>
[[File:Antioch Baptist Church, Boley OK.jpg|thumb|Antioch Baptist Church, originally built in 1903.]]