Editing Battle of San Jacinto (section)

==Background: December 1832 – March 1836==
{{Main|Texas Revolution}}

===Mexican constitution overturned===
General Antonio López de Santa Anna was a proponent of governmental [[federalism]] when he helped oust Mexican President [[Anastasio Bustamante]] in December 1832.  Upon his election as president in April 1833,<ref>Jackson, Wheat (2005), p. 28</ref> Santa Anna switched his political ideology and began implementing centralist policies that increased the authoritarian powers of his office.<ref>Poyo (1996), pp. 42–43, "Under the Mexican Flag" (Andrés Tijerina)</ref> His abrogation of the [[1824 Constitution of Mexico|Constitution of 1824]], correlating with his abolishing local-level authority over Mexico's state of ''[[Coahuila y Tejas]]'' (Coahuila and Texas), became a flashpoint in the growing tensions between the central government and its [[Tejanos|Tejano]] and Anglo citizens in Texas. While in Mexico City awaiting a meeting with Santa Anna, [[Texians|Texian]] ''[[empresario]]'' [[Stephen F. Austin]] wrote to the ''[[ayuntamiento]]'' (city council) of Béxar (now [[San Antonio]]) urging a break-away state. In response, the Mexican government kept him imprisoned for most of 1834.<ref>Henderson (2008), pp. 86–87</ref><ref>Jackson, Wheat (2005), pp. 30–31</ref>

Colonel [[Juan Almonte]] was appointed director of colonization in Texas,<ref>Jackson, Wheat (2005), pp. 49, 57</ref> ostensibly to ease relations with the colonists and mitigate their anxieties about Austin's imprisonment.<ref>Jackson, Wheat (2005), pp. 38–39</ref> He delivered promises of self-governance and conveyed regrets that the Mexican Congress deemed it constitutionally impossible for Texas to be a separate state. Behind the rhetoric, his covert mission was to identify the local power brokers, obstruct any plans for rebellion, and supply the Mexican government with data that would be of use in a military conflict. For nine months in 1834, under the guise of serving as a government liaison, Almonte traveled through Texas and compiled an all-encompassing intelligence report on the population and its environs, including an assessment of their resources and defense capabilities.<ref>Jackson, Wheat (2005), pp. 42–44, 208–283</ref>

===Cos is appointed military governor of Texas===
In consolidating his power base, Santa Anna installed General Martín Perfecto de Cos as the governing military authority over Texas in 1835.<ref name="Davis 2004, p. 143">Davis (2004), p. 143.</ref><ref name="Todish et al. 1998, p. 121">Todish ''et al.'' (1998), p. 121.</ref> Cos established headquarters in [[San Antonio]] on October 9, triggering what became known as the [[Siege of Béxar]].<ref>Menchaca, Poche, Matovina, de la Teja (2013), p. 63</ref> After two months of trying to repel the Texian forces, Cos raised a white flag on December 9 and signed surrender terms two days later.<ref>{{cite web|title=Surrender terms signed by General Cos and General Burleson at San Antonio, December 11, 1835|url=https://www.tsl.texas.gov/treasures/republic/Béxar/cos1.html|publisher=Texas State Library and Archives Commission|access-date=May 29, 2015}}</ref> The surrender of Cos effectively removed the occupying Mexican army from Texas.  Many believed the war was over, and volunteers began returning home.<ref>Poyo (1996), p. 54, "Efficient in the Cause" (Stephen L. Harden)</ref>

In compliance with orders from Santa Anna, Mexico's Minister of War [[José María Tornel]] issued his December 30 "Circular No. 5", often referred to as the Tornel Decree, aimed at dealing with United States intervention in the uprising in Texas. It declared that foreigners who entered Mexico for the purpose of joining the rebellion were to be treated as "pirates", to be put to death if captured. In adding "since they are not subjects of any nation at war with the republic nor do they militate under any recognized flag," Tornel avoided declaring war on the United States.<ref>Calore (2014), p. 56</ref><ref>Todish  ''et al.'' (1998), pp. 137–138</ref>

===Santa Anna takes the Alamo===
The Mexican Army of Operations numbered 6,019 soldiers<ref>Hardin (2004), p. 15</ref> and was spread out over {{convert|300|mi}} on its march to Béxar. General [[Joaquín Ramírez y Sesma]] was put in command of the Vanguard of the Advance that crossed into Texas.<ref>Todish ''et al.'' (1998), p. 34.</ref> Santa Anna and his [[aide-de-camp]] Almonte<ref>Jackson, Wheat (2005), pp. 351–352</ref> forded the [[Rio Grande]] at [[Guerrero Municipality, Coahuila|Guerrero, Coahuila]] on February 16, 1836,<ref>Hardin (2004), p. 25</ref> with General [[José de Urrea]] and 500 more troops following the next day at [[Matamoros, Tamaulipas|Matamoros]].<ref>Hardin (2004), p. 21</ref> Béxar was captured on February 23, and when the assault commenced, attempts at negotiation for surrender were initiated from inside the fortress. [[William B. Travis]], the garrison commander, sent Albert Martin to request a meeting with Almonte, who replied that he did not have the authority to speak for Santa Anna.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Groneman|first1=Gill|title=Green B. Jameson|url=https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fja20|website=Handbook of Texas Online|publisher=Texas State Historical Association|access-date=June 25, 2015}}; Edmondson (2000), pp. 306–307; Jackson, Wheat (2005), pp. 367–368</ref> Colonel [[James Bowie]] dispatched Green B. Jameson with a letter, translated into Spanish by [[Juan Seguín]], requesting a meeting with Santa Anna, who immediately refused. Santa Anna did, however, extend an offer of amnesty to Tejanos inside the fortress. Alamo non-combatant survivor Enrique Esparza said that most Tejanos left when Bowie advised them to take the offer.<ref>Poyo (1996), p. 53, 58 "Efficient in the Cause" (Stephen L. Harden); Lindley (2003), p. 94, 134</ref>

Cos, in violation of his surrender terms, forded into Texas at Guerrero on February 26 to join with the main army at Béxar.<ref>Jackson, Wheat (2005), pp. 366–367, 208–283</ref> Urrea proceeded to secure the Gulf Coast and was victorious in two skirmishes with Texian detachments serving under Colonel [[James Fannin]] at Goliad. On February 27 a foraging detachment under Frank W. Johnson at [[San Patricio, Texas|San Patricio]] was [[Battle of San Patricio|attacked by Urrea]]. Sixteen were killed and twenty-one taken prisoner, but Johnson and four others escaped.<ref>Hardin (2004), p. 53</ref><ref>Jackson, Wheat (2005), p. 372</ref> Urrea sent a company in search of [[James Grant (Texas politician)|James Grant]] and Plácido Benavides who were leading a company of Anglos and Tejanos towards an invasion of Matamoros. The Mexicans [[Battle of Agua Dulce|ambushed a group of Texians]], killing Grant and most of the company. Benavides and 4 others escaped, and 6 were taken prisoner.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Bishop|first1=Curtis|title=Battle of Agua Dulce Creek|url=https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/qfa01|website=Handbook of Texas Online|publisher=Texas State Historical Association|access-date=May 29, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Hartmann|first1=Clinton P.|title=James Walker Fannin Jr.|url=https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/ffa02|website=Handbook of Texas Online|publisher=Texas State Historical Association|access-date=May 29, 2015}}</ref>

The [[Convention of 1836]] met at [[Washington-on-the-Brazos, Texas|Washington-on-the-Brazos]] on March 1.<ref name=hardin161>Hardin (1994), 161</ref> The following day, Sam Houston's 42nd birthday, the 59 delegates signed the [[Texas Declaration of Independence]] and chose an ad interim government.<ref name=hardin161/><ref>Lack (1992), p. 83</ref> When news of the declaration reached Goliad, Benavides informed Fannin that in spite of his opposition to Santa Anna, he was still loyal to Mexico and did not wish to help Texas break away.  Fannin discharged him from his duties and sent him home.<ref>Hardin-Teja (2010) pp. 64–66</ref> On March 4, Houston's military authority was expanded to include "the land forces of the Texian army both Regular, Volunteer, and Militia."<ref name="Moore 2004, p. 14">Moore (2004), p. 14</ref>

At 5 a.m. on March 6, the Mexican troops launched their final [[Battle of the Alamo|assault on the Alamo]]. After a vicious 90-minute battle, with immense losses to the Mexican forces, the guns fell silent; the Alamo had fallen.<ref>Jackson, Wheat (2005), pp. 373–374</ref> Survivors [[Susanna Dickinson]], her daughter Angelina, Travis' slave Joe, and Almonte's cook Ben were spared by Santa Anna and sent to [[Gonzales, Texas|Gonzales]], where Texian volunteers had been assembling.<ref>Moore (2004), pp. 37–38</ref>

===Texian retreat: the Runaway Scrape===
{{Further|Runaway Scrape}}
[[File:SHouston.jpg|thumb|right|upright=.8|alt=Black-and-white photograph showing a balding man from the chest up.  He is looking to the side, with a pensive expression.|[[Sam Houston]]]]
The same day that Mexican troops departed Béxar, Houston arrived in Gonzales and informed the 374 volunteers (some without weapons) gathered there that Texas was now an independent republic.<ref name=moore48and52>Moore (2004), pp. 43, 48, 52, 57.</ref> Just after {{nowrap|11 p.m.}} on March 13, Susanna Dickinson and Joe brought news that the Alamo garrison had been defeated and the Mexican army was marching towards Texian settlements. A hastily convened council of war voted to evacuate the area and retreat. The evacuation commenced at midnight and happened so quickly that many Texian scouts were unaware the army had moved on.  Everything that could not be carried was burned, and the army's only two cannons were thrown into the [[Guadalupe River (Texas)|Guadalupe River]].<ref name=moore55through59>Moore (2004), pp. 55–59.</ref>  When Ramírez y Sesma reached Gonzales the morning of March 14, he found the buildings still smoldering.<ref name=moore71>Moore (2004), p. 71.</ref>
[[File:Texas Revolution Runaway Scrape 123122.jpg|upright=1.3|thumb|left|Runaway Scrape and Texas Revolution Map]]
Most citizens fled on foot, many carrying their small children. A cavalry company led by Seguín and [[Salvador Flores]] were assigned as rear guard to evacuate the more isolated ranches and protect the civilians from attacks by Mexican troops or Indians.<ref name=moore60>Moore (2004), p. 60.</ref> The further the army retreated, the more civilians joined the flight.<ref name=davis243>Davis (2006), p. 243.</ref> For both armies and the civilians, the pace was slow; torrential rains had flooded the rivers and turned the roads into mud pits.<ref name=hardin182>Hardin (1994), p. 182.</ref>

As news of the Alamo's fall spread, volunteer ranks swelled, reaching about 1,400 men by March 19.<ref name=hardin182/> Houston learned of [[Battle of Coleto|Fannin's surrender]] on March 20 and realized his army was the last hope for an independent Texas. Concerned that his ill-trained and ill-disciplined force would be good for only one battle, and aware that his men could easily be outflanked by Urrea's forces, Houston continued to avoid engagement, to the immense displeasure of his troops.<ref name=hardin183and4>Hardin (1994), pp. 183–184.</ref> By March 28, the Texian army had retreated {{convert|120|mi|km}} across the [[Navidad River|Navidad]] and [[Colorado River (Texas)|Colorado River]]s.<ref>Moore (2004), pp. 71, 74, 87, 134.</ref> Many troops deserted; those who remained grumbled that their commander was a coward.<ref name="hardin183and4"/>

On March 31, Houston paused his men at Groce's Landing on the [[Brazos River]].<ref group="Note">Groce's Landing is located roughly {{convert|9|mi|km}} northeast of modern-day [[Bellville, Texas|Bellville]]. Moore (2004), p. 149.</ref> Two companies that refused to retreat further were assigned to guard the crossing.<ref>Moore (2004), pp. 134–137.</ref>  For the next two weeks, the Texians rested, recovered from illness, and, for the first time, began practicing military drills.  While there, two cannon, known as the [[Twin Sisters (cannons)|Twin Sisters]], arrived from [[Cincinnati, Ohio]].<ref name=hardin189>Hardin (1994), p. 189.</ref>  Interim Secretary of War [[Thomas Jefferson Rusk|Thomas Rusk]] joined the camp, with orders from President [[David G. Burnet]] to replace Houston if he refused to fight. Houston quickly persuaded Rusk that his plans were sound.<ref name=hardin189/> Secretary of State [[Samuel Price Carson|Samuel P. Carson]] advised Houston to continue retreating all the way to the [[Sabine River (Texas–Louisiana)|Sabine River]], where more volunteers would likely flock from the United States and allow the army to counterattack.<ref group="Note">After getting inaccurate reports that several thousand Indians had joined the Mexican army to attack Nacogdoches, American General [[Edmund P. Gaines]] and 600 troops crossed into Texas. Reid (2007), pp. 152–153.</ref><ref name=davis263>Davis (2006), p. 263.</ref>  Unhappy with everyone involved, Burnet wrote to Houston: "The enemy are laughing you to scorn. You must fight them. You must retreat no further. The country expects you to fight. The salvation of the country depends on your doing so."<ref name=hardin189/>  Complaints within the camp became so strong that Houston posted notices that anyone attempting to usurp his position would be court-martialed and shot.<ref name=moore185>Moore (2004), p. 185.</ref>

Santa Anna and a smaller force had remained in Béxar.  After receiving word that acting President [[Miguel Barragán]] had died, Santa Anna seriously considered returning to Mexico City to solidify his position.  Fear that Urrea's victories would position him as a political rival convinced Santa Anna to remain in Texas to personally oversee the final phase of the campaign.<ref name=davis254>Davis (2006), p. 254.</ref>  He left on March 29 to join Ramírez y Sesma, leaving only a small force to hold Béxar.<ref name=moore154>Moore (2004), p. 154.</ref>  At dawn on April 7, their combined force marched into [[San Felipe, Texas|San Felipe]] and captured a Texian soldier, who informed Santa Anna that the Texians planned to retreat further if the Mexican army crossed the Brazos River.<ref name=moore176>Moore (2004), p. 176.</ref>  Unable to cross the Brazos because of the small company of Texians barricaded at the river crossing, on April 14 a frustrated Santa Anna led a force of about 700 troops to capture the interim Texas government.<ref name=hardin190>Hardin (1994), p. 190.</ref><ref name=moore182>Moore (2004), p. 182.</ref> Government officials fled mere hours before Mexican troops arrived in Harrisburgh (now [[Harrisburg, Houston]]) and Santa Anna sent Almonte with 50 cavalry to intercept them in New Washington. Almonte arrived just as Burnet shoved off in a rowboat, bound for [[Galveston Island]]. Although the boat was still within range of their weapons, Almonte ordered his men to hold their fire so as not to endanger Burnet's family.<ref name=hardin191>Hardin (1994), p. 191.</ref>

At this point, Santa Anna believed the rebellion was in its final death throes. The Texian government had been forced off the mainland, with no way to communicate with its army, which had shown no interest in fighting. He determined to block the Texian army's retreat and put a decisive end to the war.<ref name=hardin191/> Almonte's scouts incorrectly reported that Houston's army was going to Lynchburg Crossing on [[Buffalo Bayou]], in preparation for joining the government in Galveston, so Santa Anna ordered Harrisburgh burned and pressed on towards [[Lynchburg, Texas|Lynchburg]].<ref name=hardin191/>

The Texian army had resumed their march eastward.  On April 16, they came to a crossroads; one road led north towards [[Nacogdoches, Texas|Nacogdoches]], the other went to Harrisburgh.  Without orders from Houston and with no discussion amongst themselves, the troops in the lead took the road to Harrisburgh.  They arrived on April 18, not long after the Mexican army's departure.<ref name=hardin192and3>Hardin (1994), pp. 190–193.</ref>  That same day, [[Deaf Smith]] and [[Henry Karnes]] captured a Mexican courier carrying intelligence on the locations and future plans of all of the Mexican troops in Texas.  Realizing that Santa Anna had only a small force and was not far away, Houston gave a rousing speech to his men, exhorting them to "Remember the Alamo" and "Remember Goliad".  His army then raced towards Lynchburg.<ref name=hardin199and200>Hardin (1994), pp. 199–200.</ref>  Out of concern that his men might not differentiate between Mexican soldiers and the ''Tejanos'' in Seguín's company, Houston originally ordered Seguín and his men to remain in Harrisburgh to guard those who were too ill to travel quickly.  After loud protests from Seguín and [[Antonio Menchaca]], the order was rescinded, provided the ''Tejanos'' wear playing cards in their hats to identify them as Texian soldiers.<ref name=hardin209>Hardin (1994), p. 209.</ref>