Editing Athanasius of Alexandria (section)

== Biography ==
[[File:2896 - Catania - Cattedrale - G. Nicoli - S. Atanasio, nella ''Floretta'' (giardino) - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto, 4-July-2008.jpg|thumb|upright|A statue of Athanasius in [[Catania]], [[Sicily]]|alt=]]

Athanasius was born to a Christian family in [[Alexandria]],<ref name="oca">{{Cite web|url=http://oca.org/saints/lives/2014/05/02/101269-st-athanasius-the-great-the-patriarch-of-alexandria|title=St. Athanasius the Great the Patriarch of Alexandria|website=oca.org|language=en|access-date=14 March 2018}}</ref> or possibly the nearby [[Nile Delta]] town of [[Damanhur]], sometime between 293 and 298. The earlier date is sometimes assigned because of the maturity revealed in his two earliest treatises ''Contra Gentes'' (''Against the Heathens'') and ''De Incarnatione'' (''On the Incarnation''), which were likely written circa 318 before Arianism had begun to make itself felt, as those writings do not show an awareness of Arianism.<ref name="Clifford1907"/>

However, Cornelius Clifford places his birth no earlier than 296 and no later than 298, based on the fact that Athanasius indicates no first-hand recollection of the [[Diocletianic Persecution|Maximian persecution]] of 303, which he suggests Athanasius would have remembered if he had been ten years old at the time. Secondly, the ''Festal Epistles'' state that the Arians had accused Athanasius, among other charges, of not having yet attained the canonical age (35) and thus could not have been properly ordained as patriarch of Alexandria in 328. The accusation must have seemed plausible.<ref name="Clifford1907"/> The Orthodox Church places his year of birth around 297.<ref name=oca/>

=== Education ===
His parents were wealthy enough to give him a fine secular education.<ref name="Clifford1907">{{Catholic |last=Clifford |first=Cornelius |wstitle=St. Athanasius |volume=2 |inline=1 |prescript=}}</ref> He was, nevertheless, clearly not a member of the Egyptian aristocracy.<ref name="Barnes 2001">{{cite book | title=Athanasius and Constantius: Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire | publisher=Harvard University Press | author=Barnes, Timothy David | year=2001 | url=https://archive.org/details/TimothyD.BarnesAthanasiusAndConstantius1993HarvardUniversity | page=[https://archive.org/details/TimothyD.BarnesAthanasiusAndConstantius1993HarvardUniversity/page/n34 13]}}</ref> Some Western scholars consider his command of [[Greek language|Greek]], in which he wrote most (if not all) of his surviving works, evidence that he may have been a [[Greeks|Greek]] born in [[Alexandria]]. Historical evidence, however, indicates that he was fluent in [[Coptic language|Coptic]] as well, given the regions of Egypt where he preached.<ref name="Barnes 2001"/> Some surviving copies of his writings are in fact in Coptic, though scholars differ as to whether he wrote them in Coptic originally (which would make him the first patriarch to do so) or whether these were translations of writings originally in Greek.<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica"/><ref name="Barnes 2001"/>

[[Tyrannius Rufinus|Rufinus]] relates a story that as Bishop [[Pope Alexander I of Alexandria|Alexander]] stood by a window, he watched boys playing on the seashore below, imitating the ritual of Christian baptism. He sent for the children and discovered that one of the boys (Athanasius) had acted as bishop. After questioning Athanasius, Bishop Alexander informed him that the baptisms were genuine, as both the [[Sacramental matter and form|form and matter of the sacrament]] had been performed through the recitation of the correct words and the administration of water, and that he must not continue to do this as those baptized had not been properly [[Catechesis|catechized]]. He invited Athanasius and his playfellows to prepare for clerical careers.<ref name="Clifford1930"/>

Alexandria was the most important trade centre in the empire during Athanasius's boyhood. Intellectually, morally, and politically—it epitomized the ethnically diverse Graeco-Roman world, even more than Rome or Constantinople, Antioch or Marseilles.<ref name="Clifford1930">Clifford, Cornelius, ''Catholic Encyclopedia 1930'', Volume 2, pp. 35–40 "Athanasius".</ref> Its famous catechetical school, while sacrificing none of its famous passion for orthodoxy since the days of [[Pantaenus]], [[Clement of Alexandria]], [[Origen]], [[Pope Dionysius of Alexandria|Dionysius]] and [[Theognostus of Alexandria|Theognostus]], had begun to take on an almost secular character in the comprehensiveness of its interests and had counted influential pagans among its serious auditors.<ref>[[Eusebius]], Hist. Eccl., VI, xix</ref>

[[Peter I of Alexandria|Peter of Alexandria]], the 17th archbishop of Alexandria, was martyred in 311 in the closing days of the [[Diocletianic Persecution|Great Persecution]] and may have been one of Athanasius's teachers. His successor as bishop of Alexandria was [[Pope Alexander I of Alexandria|Alexander of Alexandria]]. According to [[Sozomen]]; "the Bishop Alexander 'invited Athanasius to be his commensal and secretary. He had been well educated, and was versed in grammar and rhetoric, and had already, while still a young man, and before reaching the episcopate, given proof to those who dwelt with him of his wisdom and acumen' ".(Soz., II, xvii)<ref name="Clifford1907"/>

Athanasius' earliest work, ''Against the Heathen – On the Incarnation'' (written before 319), bears traces of Origenist Alexandrian thought but in an orthodox way.<ref name="Clifford1907"/> Athanasius was also familiar with the theories of various philosophical schools and in particular with the developments of [[neoplatonism]]. Ultimately, Athanasius would modify the philosophical thought of the [[Catechetical School of Alexandria|School of Alexandria]] away from the Origenist principles such as the "entirely allegorical interpretation of the text". Still, in later works, Athanasius quotes [[Homer]] more than once (''Hist. Ar. 68, Orat. iv. 29'').

[[File:Athanasius Frederikskirken.JPG|thumb|upright|''St. Athanasius'' (1883–84), by [[Carl Rohl-Smith]], [[Frederik's Church]], [[Copenhagen, Denmark]]|alt=]]
Athanasius knew Greek and admitted not knowing [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] [see, e.g., the 39th Festal Letter of St. Athan]. The Old Testament passages he quotes frequently come from the [[Septuagint]] Greek translation. Only rarely did he use other Greek versions (to [[Aquila of Sinope|Aquila]] once in the ''Ecthesis'', to other versions once or twice on the Psalms), and his knowledge of the Old Testament was limited to the Septuagint.<ref name="GK">Ἀλεξανδρεὺς τῷ γένει, ἀνὴρ λόγιος, δυνατὸς ὢν ἐν ταῖς γραφαῖς</ref>{{full citation needed|date=May 2021}} 

Bishop (or Patriarch, the highest ecclesial rank in the Centre of the Church, in Alexandria) Alexander ordained Athanasius a deacon in 319.<ref name="EA">''Encyclopedia Americana'', vol. 2 [[Danbury, Connecticut]]: Grolier Incorporated, 1997. {{ISBN|0-7172-0129-5}}.{{page needed|date=May 2022}}</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2021}} In 325, Athanasius served as Alexander's secretary at the [[First Council of Nicaea]]. Already a recognized theologian and [[Asceticism|ascetic]], he was the obvious choice to replace his ageing mentor Alexander as the [[Patriarch of Alexandria|Pope of Alexandria]],<ref name="EB">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Athanasius |title=Saint Athanasius |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |first=Edward R. |last=Hardy}}</ref> despite the opposition of the followers of [[Arius]] and [[Melitius of Lycopolis|Meletius of Lycopolis]].<ref name="EA"/>

At length, in the Council of Nicaea, the term "consubstantial" ([[homoousion]]) was adopted, and a formulary of faith embodying it was drawn up by [[Hosius of Corduba|Hosius of Córdoba]]. From this time to the end of the Arian controversies, the word "consubstantial" continued to be the test of orthodoxy. The formulary of faith drawn up by Hosius is known as the [[Nicene Creed]].<ref name="ReferenceB"/>{{rp|232}} However, "he was not the originator of the famous 'homoousion' (<small>[[Accusative case|ACC]]</small> of ''homoousios''). The term had been proposed in a non-obvious and illegitimate sense by [[Paul of Samosata]] to the Fathers at Antioch, and had been rejected by them as savouring of materialistic conceptions of the Godhead."<ref name="Clifford1907"/>

While still a deacon under Alexander's care (or early in his patriarchate as discussed below) Athanasius may have also become acquainted with some of the solitaries of the Egyptian desert, and in particular [[Anthony the Great]], whose life he is said to have written.<ref name="Clifford1930"/>

=== Opposition to Arianism ===
{{Further|Arian controversy}}
In about 319, when Athanasius was a deacon, a [[presbyter]] named Arius came into a direct conflict with Alexander of Alexandria. It appears that Arius reproached Alexander for what he felt were misguided or heretical teachings being taught by the bishop.<ref>Kannengiesser, Charles, "Alexander and Arius of Alexandria: The last Ante-Nicene theologians", Miscelanea En Homenaje Al P. Antonio Orbe Compostellanum Vol. XXXV, no. 1–2. (Santiago de Compostela, 1990), 398</ref> Arius embraced a subordinationist [[Christology]] which taught that Christ was the divine Son ([[Logos (Christianity)|Logos]]) of God, made, not begotten. Arius had support from a powerful bishop named [[Eusebius of Nicomedia]] (not to be confused with [[Eusebius]] of Caesarea),<ref>Alexander of Alexandria's Catholic Epistle</ref> illustrating how Arius's subordinationist Christology was shared by other Christians in the empire. Arius was subsequently excommunicated by Alexander, and Arius began to elicit the support of many bishops who agreed with his position.<ref name="EA" />{{rp|297}}

=== Patriarch ===
{{Infobox manner of address
| background  = plum
| type        = Papal
| name        = Pope Athanasius I
| image       = [[File:Coptic cross.svg|75px]]
| reference   = [[His Holiness]]
| spoken      = Your Holiness
| religious   = [[Patriarch of Alexandria| Pope and Patriarch]]
| posthumous  = Saint
}}
Frances A. M. Forbes writes that when Patriarch Alexander was on his death-bed he called Athanasius, who fled fearing he would be constrained to be made bishop. "When the Bishops of the Church assembled to elect their new Patriarch, the whole Catholic population surrounded the church, holding up their hands to Heaven and crying; "Give us Athanasius!" The Bishops had nothing better. Athanasius was thus elected, as Gregory tells us..." ([[Pope Gregory I]] had full access to the [[Vatican Apostolic Archive|Vatican Archives]]).<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/27707/pg27707.html |title=Saint Athanasius: The Father of Orthodoxy |year=1919 |first=F. A. |last=Forbes | publisher=R. & T. Washbourne, Ltd. |publication-place=London |series=Standard-bearers of the Faith: A Series of Lives of the Saints for Young and Old}}</ref>{{rp|Chapter 4}} Alban Butler writes on the subject: "Five months after this great Council, Nicae, St Alexander lying on his deathbed, recommended to his clergy and people the choice of Athanasius for his successor, thrice repeating his name. In consequence of his recommendation, the bishops of all Egypt assembled at Alexandria, and finding the people and clergy unanimous in their choice of Athanasius for patriarch, they confirmed the election about the middle of year 326. He seems, then, to have been about thirty years of age."<ref name="Butler1860" />

T. Gilmartin (Professor of History, [[Maynooth]], 1890) writes: "On the death of Alexander, five months after the termination of the Council of Nicaea, Athanasius was unanimously elected to fill the vacant see. He was most unwilling to accept the dignity, for he clearly foresaw the difficulties in which it would involve him. The clergy and people were determined to have him as their bishop, Patriarch of Alexandria, and refused to accept any excuses. He at length consented to accept a responsibility that he sought in vain to escape, and was consecrated in 326, when he was about thirty years of age."<ref name="ReferenceB">T. Gilmartin, ''Manual of Church History'', Vol. 1. Ch XVII, 1890.</ref>{{rp|244–248}}

Athanasius' episcopate began on 9 May 328 as the [[Councils of Alexandria|Alexandrian Council]] elected Athanasius to succeed after the death of Alexander.<ref name="ReferenceB" />{{rp|245}} Patriarch Athanasius spent over 17 years in five exiles ordered by four different Roman Emperors, not counting approximately six more incidents in which Athanasius fled Alexandria to escape people seeking to take his life.<ref name="EB"/> During his first years as bishop, Athanasius visited the churches of his territory, which at that time included all of [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]] and [[Libya in the Roman era|Libya]]. He established contacts with the hermits and monks of the desert, including [[Pachomius the Great|Pachomius]], which proved very valuable to him over the years.<ref name="EB" />

"During the forty-eight years of his episcopate, his history is told in the history of the controversies in which he was constantly engaged with the Arians, and of the sufferings he had to endure in defence of the Nicene faith. 
We have seen that when Arius was allowed to return from exile in 328, Athanasius refused to remove the sentence of excommunication."<ref name="ReferenceB" />{{Rp|page=245}}

====First exile====
Athanasius' first problem lay with Meletius of Lycopolis and his followers, who had failed to abide by the First Council of Nicaea. That council also [[anathema]]tized Arius. Accused of mistreating Arians and Meletians, Athanasius answered those charges at a gathering of bishops at the [[First Synod of Tyre]] in 335. There, Eusebius of Nicomedia and other supporters of Arius deposed Athanasius.<ref name="EA"/>{{page needed|date=May 2022}} On 6 November, both sides of the dispute met with Emperor [[Constantine the Great|Constantine I]] in [[Constantinople]].<ref>Barnes, Timothy D., ''Athanasius and Constantius: Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire'' (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1993), 23</ref> At that meeting, the Arians claimed Athanasius would try to cut off essential Egyptian grain supplies to Constantinople. He was found guilty and sent into exile to Augusta Treverorum in Gaul (now [[Trier]] in Germany).<ref name="EA"/>{{page needed|date=May 2022}}<ref name="EB"/>

When Athanasius reached his destination in exile in 336, [[Maximin of Trier]] received him, but not as a disgraced person. Athanasius stayed with him for two years.<ref name="Butler1860">{{Cite book |last=Butler |first=Alban |url=https://archive.org/details/livesofsaintswit00butl/page/164/mode/2up |title=Lives of the Saints |date=1894 |publisher= Benziger Bros., Inc. |pages=164–165}}</ref> Constantine died in 337 and was succeeded by his three sons, [[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]], [[Constantius II|Constantius]], and [[Constans]]. [[Paul I of Constantinople]] had cautioned Emperor Constans against the Arians, revealing their plots, and he also had been banished and found shelter with Maximin.<ref>{{Catholic |wstitle=St. Maximinus |first=Michael |last=Ott |volume=10 |inline=1 |prescript=}}</ref>

====Second exile====
[[File:Hosios Loukas Crypt (south east groin-vault) - Athanasios.jpg|thumb|upright|Fresco at [[Hosios Loukas]], Greece (11th century)|alt=]]
[[File:Athanasius of Alexandria.jpg|thumb|upright|Statue of the saint in St Athanasius's [[Catholic Church]] in [[Evanston, Illinois]]|alt=]]

When Emperor Constantine I died, Athanasius was allowed to return to his [[Episcopal see|See]] of Alexandria. Shortly thereafter, however, Constantius II renewed the order for Athanasius's banishment in 338. "Within a few weeks he set out for Rome to lay his case before the Church at large. He had made his appeal to [[Pope Julius I|Pope Julius]], who took up his cause with whole-heartedness that never wavered down to the day of that holy pontiff's death. The pope summoned a synod of bishops to meet in Rome. After a careful and detailed examination of the entire case, the primate's innocence was proclaimed to the Christian world."<ref name="Clifford1907"/> During this time, [[Gregory of Cappadocia]], an Arian bishop, was installed as the patriarch of Alexandria, usurping the absent Athanasius. Athanasius did, however, remain in contact with his people through his annual ''Festal Letters'', in which he also announced on which date [[Easter]] would be celebrated that year.<ref name="EB"/>

In 339 or 340, nearly one hundred bishops met at Alexandria, declared in favour of Athanasius,<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6_VJAwAAQBAJ&q=339+or+340&pg=RA1-PA47 | title=A History of the Councils of the Church: from the Original Documents, to the close of the Second Council of Nicaea A.D. 787 | publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers | author=Clark, William R. | year=2007 | page=47 | isbn=9781556352478}}</ref> and vigorously rejected the criticisms of the Eusebian faction at Tyre. Plus, Pope Julius wrote to the supporters of Arius strongly urging Athanasius's reinstatement, but that effort proved in vain. Julius called a [[synod]] in Rome in 340 to address the matter, which proclaimed Athanasius the rightful bishop of Alexandria.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fMhzlnY0P0QC&q=340+Julius+called&pg=PA82 | title=The First Seven Ecumenical Councils (325–787): Their History and Theology | publisher=Liturgical Press | author=Davis, Leo Donald | year=1983 | page=82| isbn=9780814656167 }}</ref>

Early in 343 Athanasius met with Hosius of Córdoba, and together they set out for [[Sofia|Serdica]]. A full council of the Church was summoned there in deference to the Roman pontiff's wishes. At this great gathering of prelates, leaders of the Church, the case of Athanasius was taken up once more, that is, Athanasius was formally questioned over misdemeanours and even murder, (a bishop in Egypt named Arsenius had turned up missing, and they blamed his death on Athanasius, even supposedly producing Arsenius' severed hand.)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Milman |first=Henry Hart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OYAZAAAAYAAJ&dq=athanasius+Arsenius+severed+hand&pg=PA382 |title=The History of Christianity, from the Birth of Christ to the Abolition of Paganism in the Roman Empire |date=1881 |publisher=T. Y. Crowell |pages=382 |language=en}}</ref>

The council was convoked for the purpose of inquiring into the charges against Athanasius and other bishops, on account of which they were deposed from their sees by the semi-Arian Synod of Antioch in 341 and went into exile. Eusebian bishops objected to the admission of Athanasius and other deposed bishops to the council, except as accused persons to answer the charges brought against them. Their objections were overridden by the orthodox bishops. The Eusebians, seeing they had no chance of having their views carried, retired to [[Philippopolis (Thrace)|Philippopolis]] in Thrace where they held an opposition council under the presidency of the Patriarch of Antioch and confirmed the decrees of the [[Synods of Antioch|Synod of Antioch]].<ref name="ReferenceB"/>{{Rp|pages=233–234}}

Athanasius' innocence was reaffirmed at the [[Council of Serdica]]. Two conciliar letters were prepared, one to the clergy and faithful of Alexandria, the other to the bishops of Egypt and Libya, in which the will of the council was made known. Meanwhile, the Eusebians issued an anathema against Athanasius and his supporters. The persecution against the orthodox party broke out with renewed vigour, and Constantius was induced to prepare drastic measures against Athanasius and the priests who were devoted to him. Orders were given that if Athanasius attempted to re-enter his see, he should be put to death. Athanasius, accordingly, withdrew from Serdica to [[Niš|Naissus]] in [[Mysia]], where he celebrated the Easter festival of the year 344.<ref name="Clifford1907"/> Hosius presided over the Council of Serdica, as he did for the First Council of Nicaea, which like the 341 synod found Athanasius innocent.<ref name="EB1878">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ccel.org/a/athanasius|title=St. Athanasius – Christian Classics Ethereal Library |website=www.ccel.org|language=en|access-date=14 March 2018}}</ref> He celebrated his last Easter in exile in [[Aquileia]] in April 345, received by Bishop [[Fortunatianus of Aquileia|Fortunatianus]].<ref>Barnes, Timothy David, ''Athanasius and Constantius'', Harvard 2001, p. 66</ref>

The Council of Serdica sent an emissary to report their finding to Constantius. Constantius reconsidered his decision, owing to a threatening letter from his brother Constans and the uncertain conditions of affairs on the Persian border, and he accordingly made up his mind to yield. But three separate letters were needed to overcome the natural hesitation of Athanasius. When he finally acquiesced to meet with Constantius, he was accorded a gracious interview by the emperor and sent back to his see in triumph and began ten years of peace.<ref name="Clifford1907"/>

Pope Julius died in April 352 and was succeeded by [[Pope Liberius|Liberius]]. For two years Liberius had been favourable to the cause of Athanasius; but driven at last into exile, he was induced to sign an ambiguous formula, from which the great Nicene text, the "homoousion", had been studiously omitted. In 355 a [[Synod of Milan|council was held at Milan]], where in spite of the vigorous opposition of a handful of loyal prelates among the Western bishops, a fourth condemnation of Athanasius was announced to the world. With his friends scattered, Hosius in exile, and Pope Liberius denounced as acquiescing in Arian formularies, Athanasius could hardly hope to escape. On the night of 8 February 356, while engaged in services in the Church of St. Thomas, a band of armed men burst in to secure his arrest. It was the beginning of his third exile.<ref name="Clifford1907"/>

Gilmartin writes: "By Constantius' order, the sole ruler of The Roman Empire at the death of his brother Constans, the [[Synod of Arles|Council of Arles in 353]], was held, which was presided over by Vincent, Bishop of [[Capua]], in the name of Pope Liberius. The fathers terrified of the threats of the Emperor, an avowed Arian, they consented to the condemnation of Athanasius. The Pope refused to accept their decision, and requested the Emperor to hold another Council, in which the charges against Athanasius could be freely investigated. To this Constantius consented, for he felt able to control the Council in Milan."<ref name="ReferenceB"/>{{rp|234}}

In 355, three hundred bishops assembled in Milan, most from the West and only a few from the East. They met in the Church of Milan. Shortly, the emperor ordered them to a hall in the Imperial Palace, thus ending any free debate. He presented an Arian formula of faith for their acceptance. He threatened any who refused with exile and death. All, with the exception of [[Dionysius (bishop of Milan)]], and the two Papal Legates, viz., [[Eusebius of Vercelli]] and [[Lucifer of Cagliari]], consented to the [[Arian creeds|Arian Creed]] and the condemnation of Athanasius. Those who refused were sent into exile. The decrees were forwarded to the pope for approval but were rejected because of the violence to which the bishops were subjected.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>{{rp|235}}

====Third exile====
[[File:Saint Athanasius.jpg|thumb|Athanasius at the Council of Nicea, [[William of Tyre]] manuscripts|alt=]]
Through the influence of the Eusebian faction at Constantinople, an Arian bishop, [[George of Cappadocia]], was appointed to rule the see of Alexandria in 356. Athanasius, after remaining some days in the neighbourhood of the city, finally withdrew into the desert of [[Upper Egypt]] where he remained for a period of six years, living the life of the monks and devoting himself to the composition of a group of writings, such as his ''Letter to the Monks'' and ''Four Orations against the Arians''.<ref name="Clifford1907"/> He also defended his own recent conduct in the ''Apology to Constantius'' and ''Apology for His Flight''. Constantius' persistence in his opposition to Athanasius, combined with reports Athanasius received about the persecution of non-Arians by the Arian bishop [[George of Laodicea]], prompted Athanasius to write his more emotional ''History of the Arians'', in which he described Constantius as a precursor of the [[Antichrist]].<ref name="EB" />

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Constantius ordered Liberius into exile in 356, giving him three days to comply. He was ordered into banishment to [[Stara Zagora|Beroea]], Thrace. Constantius sent expensive presents if he were to accept the Arian position, which Liberius refused. He sent him five hundred pieces of gold "to bear his charges" which Liberius refused, saying he might bestow them on his flatterers; as he did also a like present from the empress, bidding the messenger learn to believe in Christ, and not to persecute the Church of God. Attempts were made to leave the presents in The Church, but Liberius threw them out. Constantius hereupon sent for him under a strict guard to Milan, where in a conference recorded by Theodore, he boldly told Constantius that Athanasius had been acquitted at Serdica, and his enemies proved calumniators (see: "calumny") and impostors, and that it was unjust to condemn a person who could not be legally convicted of any crime. The emperor was reduced to silence on every article, but being the more out of patience, ordered him into banishment.<ref name="ReferenceB" />{{rp|235–236}}

Liberius went into exile. Constantius, after two years went to Rome to celebrate the twentieth year of his reign. The ladies joined in a petition to him that he would restore Liberius. He assented, upon condition that he should comply with the bishops, then, at court. He subscribed the condemnation of Athanasius, and a confession or creed which had been framed by the Arians at [[Sirmium]]. And he no sooner had recovered his see that he declared himself for the [[Nicene Creed|Creed of Niceae]], as Theodoret testifies. ([[Theodoret]], Hist. lib. ii. c. 17.).<ref name="Butler1860" /> The Emperor knew what he wanted people to believe. So did the bishops at his court. Athanasius stuck by the orthodox creed.<ref name="Christianity, Daily Telegraph 1999"/> Constantius was an avowed Arian, became sole ruler in 350, at the death of his brother, Constans.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>{{rp|236}}

T. Gilmartin, (Professor of History, Maynooth, 1890), writes in Church History, Vol. 1, Ch XVII:
<blockquote>The Arians sought the approval of an Ecumenical Council. They sought to hold two councils. Constantius, summoned the bishops of the East to meet at [[Seleucia in Isauria]], and those of the West to [[Rimini]] in Italy. A preliminary conference was held by the Arians at [[Sirmium]], to agree a formula of faith. A "Homoeon" creed was adopted, declaring The Son to be "like the Father". The two met in autumn of 359. At Seleucia, one hundred and fifty bishops, of which one hundred and five were semi-Arian. The semi-Arians refused to accept anything less than the "Homoiousion", (see: [[Homoiousian]]), formulary of faith. The Imperial Prefect was obliged to disband, without agreeing on any creed.<ref name="ReferenceB"/></blockquote>

Acacius, the leader of the "Homoean" party went to Constantinople, where the Sirmian formulary of faith was approved by the "Home Synod", (consisted of those bishops who happened to be present at the Court for the time), and a decree of deposition issued against the leaders of the semi-Arians. At Rimini were over four hundred of which eighty were Arian, the rest were orthodox. The orthodox fathers refused to accept any creed but the Nicene, while the others were equally in favour of the Sirmian. Each party sent a deputation to the Emperor to say there was no probability to agreement, and asked for the bishops to return to their dioceses. For the purpose of wearing-down the orthodox bishops; (Sulpitius Severius says), Constantius delayed his answer for several months, and finally prevailed on them to accept the Sirmian creed. It was after this Council that [[Jerome]] said: " ...the whole world groaned in astonishment to find itself Arian."<ref name="ReferenceB"/>{{rp|239}}

The Arians no longer presented an unbroken front to their orthodox opponents.-->Constantius died on 4 November 361 and was succeeded by [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]]. The proclamation of the new prince's accession was the signal for a pagan outbreak against the still dominant Arian faction in Alexandria. George, the usurping bishop, was imprisoned and murdered. An obscure presbyter named Pistus was chosen by the Arians to succeed him, when news arrived that filled the orthodox party with hope. An edict had been put forth by Julian permitting the exiled bishops of the "Galileans" to return to their "towns and provinces". Athanasius accordingly returned to Alexandria on 22 February 362.<ref name="Clifford1907"/>

In 362 Athanasius convened a council at Alexandria and presided over it with [[Eusebius of Vercelli]]. Athanasius appealed for unity among all those who had faith in Christianity, even if they differed on matters of terminology. This prepared the groundwork for his definition of the orthodox doctrine of the [[Trinity]]. However, the council also was directed against those who denied the divinity of the Holy Spirit, the human soul of Christ, and Christ's divinity. Mild measures were agreed on for those heretic bishops who repented, but severe penance was decreed for the chief leaders of the major heresies.<ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle=Councils of Alexandria}}</ref>

With characteristic energy he set to work to re-establish the somewhat shattered fortunes of the orthodox party and to purge the theological atmosphere of uncertainty. To clear up the misunderstandings that had arisen in the course of the previous years, an attempt was made to determine still further the significance of the Nicene formularies. In the meanwhile, Julian, who seems to have become suddenly jealous of the influence that Athanasius was exercising at Alexandria, addressed an order to Ecdicius, the Prefect of Egypt, peremptorily commanding the expulsion of the restored primate on the ground that he had not been included in the imperial act of clemency. The edict was communicated to the bishop by Pythicodorus Trico, who, though described in the "Chronicon Athanasianum" (XXXV) as a "philosopher", seems to have behaved with brutal insolence. On 23 October the people gathered about the proscribed bishop to protest against the emperor's decree; but Athanasius urged them to submit, consoling them with the promise that his absence would be of short duration.<ref name="Clifford1907"/>

====Fourth exile====

In 362 Julian, noted for his opposition to Christianity, ordered Athanasius to leave Alexandria once again. Athanasius left for Upper Egypt, remaining there with the [[Desert Fathers]] until Julian's death on 26 June 363. Athanasius returned in secret to Alexandria, where he received a document from the new emperor, [[Jovian (emperor)|Jovian]], reinstating him once more in his episcopal functions. 
His first act was to convene a council which reaffirmed the terms of the Nicene Creed. Early in September 363 he set out for [[Antioch on the Orontes]], bearing a synodal letter, in which the pronouncements of this council had been embodied. At Antioch he had an interview with Jovian, who received him graciously and even asked him to prepare an exposition of the orthodox faith. In February 364 Jovian died.<ref name="Clifford1907"/>

====Fifth exile====

The accession of Emperor [[Valens]] gave a fresh lease of life to the Arian party. He issued a decree banishing the bishops who had been deposed by Constantius but who had been permitted by Jovian to return to their sees. The news created the greatest consternation in Alexandria, and the prefect, in order to prevent a serious outbreak, gave public assurance that the very special case of Athanasius would be laid before the emperor. But Athanasius seems to have divined what was preparing in secret against him. He quietly withdrew from Alexandria in October 364 and took up his abode in a country house outside the city. Valens, who seems to have sincerely dreaded the possible consequences of another popular outbreak, within a few weeks issued orders allowing Athanasius to return to his [[episcopal see]].<ref name="EB"/> Some early reports state that Athanasius spent this period of exile at his family's ancestral tomb<ref name="EA"/> in a Christian cemetery.

====Final years and death====
After returning to Alexandria, Athanasius spent his final years repairing all the damage done during the earlier years of violence, dissent, and exile. He resumed writing and preaching undisturbed, and characteristically re-emphasized the view of the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|Incarnation]] which had been defined at Nicaea. On 2 May 373, having consecrated [[Pope Peter II of Alexandria|Peter II]], one of his presbyters as his successor, Athanasius died peacefully in his own bed, surrounded by his clergy and faithful supporters.<ref name="Clifford1930" />