Editing Armed Forces of El Salvador (section)

==History==
===Spanish colonial rule===
In the 19th century, soldiers in El Salvador may have been nominally employed by the governing body. However, if not given their pay, the soldiers would supplement their income as mercenaries and militia for local politicians and landowners.<ref name="Ching"/>

===Coffee barons and militia===
In the late 19th century, El Salvador went through a period of internal discord. In 1871, Santiago Gonzales seized power by military coup. General Carlos Ezeta did the same in 1890 and General Rafael Gutierrez in 1894.<ref name="Perez">Perez O. [https://books.google.com/books?id=dTSHDAAAQBAJ&dq=%22el+salvador%22+%2219th+century%22+history+military&pg=PA7 ''Historical Dictionary of El Salvador''] Rowman & Littlefield, 2016 p7. {{ISBN|0810880202}}</ref> However, these changes in power were fought between networks of rival landowners (coffee barons) and politicians under their patronage rather than between official military and government forces.<ref name="Ching">Ching E. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYQFDgAAQBAJ&dq=el+salvador+1890&pg=PT326 ''Authoritarian El Salvador: Politics and the Origins of the Military Regimes''] University of Notre Dame Press, 2014 {{ISBN|0268076995}}</ref>

===La Matanza===
{{Main|La Matanza}}
Military operations in El Salvador continued in a similar way until the early 20th century.<ref name="Perez"/> During the [[Great Depression]], coffee prices fell, the wages of indigenous Salvadoran workers were cut and unemployment was widespread. For three days in 1932, the indigenous workers rebelled.<ref>[http://equalexchange.coop/history-of-coffee-in-el-salvador History of Coffee in El Salvador] Equal Exchange website. Accessed 26 February 2018.</ref> The ruling general, [[Maximiliano Hernández Martínez]] (1882 {{ndash}} 1966), responded with force. Under his command, the national army proper, slaughtered up to 40,000 peasants.<ref>Lindo-Fuentes H. et al [https://books.google.com/books?id=AubqWtPHt1kC&q=1932+massacre+salvador ''Remembering a Massacre in El Salvador: The Insurrection of 1932''] UNM Press, 2007 p23. {{ISBN|0826336043}}</ref>

===Palm Sunday coup===
{{Main|Palm Sunday Coup}}
Twelve years of autocratic rule followed. Martínez withheld democratic and civil rights. On 2 March 1944, a [[Palm Sunday]], the landowners, intellectuals, students and also some sections of the Salvadoran armed forces rebelled. The First Infantry Regiment and the Second Artillery Regiment of [[San Salvador]] joined the rebels as did the Garrison of [[Santa Ana, El Salvador|Santa Ana]]. Santa Ana was bombed from the air.<ref>Ackerman P. [https://books.google.com/books?id=LMe2CgAAQBAJ&dq=palm+sunday+coup+salvador+1944&pg=PA252 ''A Force More Powerful: A Century of Non-violent Conflict''] St. Martin's Press, 2015 p252 {{ISBN|125010520X}}</ref> The rebellion was put down by the remaining loyal sections of the military. Reprisals of torture and execution of those who had joined the rebellion followed. Martial law was put in place. However, in May 1944, non-violent protest leading to a [[general strike]] caused Martinez to fall from power.<ref>Zunes S. [https://www.nonviolent-conflict.org/el-salvador-1944/ El Salvador: 1944] International Center on Non-violent Conflict website. Accessed 27 February 2018</ref>

===Rebellion of 1948===
During the years that followed, young military officers became increasingly dissatisfied with their situation. They saw the generals clinging to senior posts for which they had little training and without making way for the younger officers. They saw the generals failing to prepare for the social and economic changes coming to Central America. They objected to unfair disciplinary measures and unfair surveillance. In 1948, fighting broke out between the younger officers and troops under their command and the senior generals and the police force under their command. The president, [[Salvador Castaneda Castro]] (1888 {{ndash}} 1965) was imprisoned. Senior officers and politicians were dismissed. The new government promoted the formation of a truly national, apolitical and professional army in El Salvador.<ref name="Williams">Williams P. and Walter K. [https://books.google.com/books?id=3MVBjywM-DcC&dq=el+salvador+1950&pg=PA206 ''Militarization and Demilitarization in El Salvador’s Transition to Democracy''] University of Pittsburgh Pre, 1997 p38. {{ISBN|0822971860}}</ref>

===American influence and the Cold War===
From 1947 to 1953, El Salvador held an agreement with the US whereby an American military aviation mission would be sent to El Salvador; El Salvador would seek advice from the US preferentially and purchase arms from the US.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=0USAyAqhPEEC&dq=us+el+salvador+military+agreement+1953&pg=PA416 ''United States Treaties and Other International Agreements, Volume 5''] Department of State, 1955 p419.</ref><ref>Holden R. [https://books.google.com/books?id=TH88DwAAQBAJ&dq=us+el+salvador+military+agreement+1953&pg=PA285 ''Armies Without Nations: Public Violence and State Formation in Central America''] Oxford University Press, 2006 p285 {{ISBN|0195310209}}</ref> Some Salvadoran military officers were trained in North America and the [[Panama Canal Zone]]. Nevertheless, the amount of American military aid purchased by El Salvador in the 1950s was small; just enough in [[munition]]s and light arms to suppress internal conflict such as [[communism|communist]] activity.<ref name="Williams"/>

In the 1950s, Salvadoran men underwent one year of national service before being discharged to a reserve army. They then underwent further training on a regular basis and could be called to join active provincial patrols (''patrullas cantonalles''). Regular meetings of the men were held reinforcing loyalty to the nation and opposition to communism. Men from disadvantaged circumstances were offered monetary and practical assistance and education for their children. The number of reservists grew to approximately 40,000.<ref name="Williams"/>

In the 1960s, a [[junta (governing body)|junta]] of conservative military officers and landowners took power in a coup and then organised elections. In 1961, the junta's candidate Lieutenant Colonel [[Julio Adalberto Rivera]] was elected president. In 1967, Colonel Fidel Sanchez Hernandez became president.<ref>[http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch24salvador.htm Civil War in El Salvador] Macro history and world timeline website. Accessed 1 March 2018</ref>

===Football War===
{{Main|Football War}}
In 1969, tensions between El Salvador and [[Honduras]] increased. There was dispute concerning the border between the two countries. Approximately 300,000 Salvadorans had moved to Honduras due to population and land pressures in their homeland but Honduras had not renewed the El Salvador – Honduras Bilateral Treaty on Immigration. Honduras and El Salvador were competitors in the Central American Common Market. Honduras' economy was struggling and the Honduran Government started to deport the Salvadorans who they saw as illegal immigrants. Many Salvadorans fled after their Vice Consul was killed.<ref>Di Piazza F. [https://books.google.com/books?id=un6kGui8z4QC&dq=cacm+el+salvador&pg=PA28 ''El Salvador in Pictures''] Twenty-First Century Books, 2007 p29. {{ISBN|0822571455}}</ref><ref>Moodie E. [https://books.google.com/books?id=x4uOS0AcIA4C&dq=%22football+war%22+el+salvador&pg=PA222 ''El Salvador in the aftermath of peace''] University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011 p30. {{ISBN|0812205979}}</ref><ref name="Fouskas">Fouskas V. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZomsAgAAQBAJ&dq=%22football+war%22+el+salvador&pg=PA37 ''Politics of Conflict''] Routledge, 2010 p37. {{
ISBN|1136833579}}</ref> In June 1969, El Salvador played three games against Honduras in the [[1970 FIFA World Cup qualification|qualifying rounds of the World Cup]].<ref name="Perez"/>{{rp|page=64}} Then, on 26 June 1969, El Salvador won a play-off game 3 goals to 2 against [[Haiti]], taking a place in the cup finals.<ref>Dunmore T. [https://books.google.com/books?id=4uJdBgAAQBAJ&dq=qualifying+finals+world+cup+1970&pg=PA204 ''Encyclopedia of the FIFA World Cup''] Scarecrow Press, 2015 p204. {{ISBN|0810887436}}</ref>

On 14 July 1969, armed hostilities began between El Salvador and Honduras. Due to the war's proximity to the World Cup qualifying games, it was called the "[[Football War]]" or the "[[Soccer]] War".

At this time, the Salvadoran forces included approximately 8,000 infantrymen with rifles, machine guns, mortars and bazookas, 105&nbsp;mm cannons and a few armoured personnel carriers. Very few arms were manufactured in El Salvador. Most arms were supplied by the US. Honduras' infantry was smaller and less well equipped.<ref name="Brzoska">Brzoska M. and Pearson F. [https://books.google.com/books?id=to7hS3Wlro4C&dq=%22football+war%22+honduras&pg=PA61 ''Arms and Warfare: Escalation, De-escalation, and Negotiation''] Univ of South Carolina Press, 1994 p64. {{ISBN|0872499820}}</ref>

The Salvadoran Air Force, flying [[P-51 Mustang]]s, attacked Honduran targets and vice versa, but each air force had only a few working aeroplanes and was hampered by a lack of spare parts.<ref name="Perez"/>{{rp|page=64}}  El Salvador's infantry forces invaded Honduras and took [[Ocotepeque]].<ref name="Fouskas"/><ref name="Brzoska"/><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.airspacemag.com/history-of-flight/last-piston-engine-dogfights-180956250/|title=The Last Piston-Engine Dogfights|last=Lerner|first=P.|work=Air and Space Magazine|access-date=2017-10-05|language=en}}</ref>

As Salvadoran troops approached [[Tegucigalpa]], their supply lines failed, they became exhausted and were slowed by heavy rainfall, and their morale fell. On July 18, 1969, the Organization of American States (OAS) organised a [[ceasefire]]. Then as economic sanctions and an arms [[embargo]] took effect, both sides. The war lasted for four days and therefore is also called the "one hundred hour war".<ref name="Brzoska"/>

===Civil War===
{{Main|Salvadoran Civil War}}
The [[Salvadoran Civil War]] was fought between 1979 and 1992. The Salvadoran armed forces fought the ''Frente Farabundo Marti para la Liberacion Nacional'' ([[FMLN]]), a coalition of insurgent [[guerrilla]] groups. The war began when a reformist government was suppressed by hard line military elements and by landowners.<ref>Wood E. [https://books.google.com/books?id=QBAAN3ABKmIC&q=el+salvador+civil+war ''Insurgent Collective Action and Civil War in El Salvador''] Cambridge University Press, 2003 p2. {{ISBN|0521010500}}</ref>

Between 1980 and 1983, the Salvadoran armed forces were driven out of territory controlled by large FMLN groups in rural areas. The FMLN membership later increased to over 12,000 when the organisation was able to provide local governance and services.<ref name="Perez"/>{{rp|page=10}} The government responded with counter-insurgency actions including the assassination of the [[archbishop]], [[Oscar Romero]] (1917 {{ndash}} 1980).<ref>Lemoine F. and Strickland J. [https://books.google.com/books?id=vSwi2TYabS4C&dq=%22oscar+arnulfo+romero%22&pg=PA157 ''Government Leaders, Military Rulers, and Political Activists''] Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001 p157. {{ISBN|1573561533}}</ref>

In late 1981, soldiers of the national armed forces' [[Atlácatl Battalion]], a rapid response troop, killed 900 civilians at [[El Mozote massacre|El Mozote]]. This was one of a number of actions including rapes, bashings, torture and killings. Men of this battalion were graduates of the [[Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation|US School of the Americas]] at [[Fort Benning]], [[Columbus, Georgia]].<ref>Whitfield T. [https://books.google.com/books?id=qv9o4qoOnFEC&dq=atlacatl+battalion&pg=PA169 ''Paying the Price: Ignacio Ellacuría and the Murdered Jesuits of El Salvador''] Temple University Press, 1994 p169. {{ISBN|1566392535}}</ref> Another atrocity occurred on [[1989 murders of Jesuits in El Salvador|16 November 1989]]. Army soldiers murdered six [[Jesuit]] priests, their housekeeper and her daughter at the [[Central American University (San Salvador)|Central American University]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=A1lOzcKvAbIC&dq=jesuit+killings+el+salvador&pg=PA30542 Congressional Record, V. 145, Pt. 21, November 17, 1999 to December 3, 1999] Government Printing Office p30524.</ref>

In 1989, the armed forces of El Salvador had raised 56,000 fighting men with 63 aeroplanes and 72 helicopters.<ref name="Perez"/>{{rp|page=11}} Between 1983 and 1987, El Salvador's military forces received over 100 million dollars per year from the US.<ref>Negroponte D. [https://books.google.com/books?id=HdTIAAAAQBAJ&dq=1989+us+military+aid+to+el+salvador&pg=PA191 ''Seeking Peace in El Salvador''] Springer, 2012 p191 {{ISBN|1137012080}}</ref>

In 1990, at the end of the [[Cold War]], the US restricted funding to the Salvadoran military. The US found its rigorous measures against left wing groups were no longer needed. This and the lack of advantage on either side led to the end of the war in 1992.<ref>Gomez M. [https://books.google.com/books?id=B1yTAgAAQBAJ&dq=military+accountability+el+salvador&pg=PA121 ''Human Rights in Cuba, El Salvador and Nicaragua''] Routledge, 2004 p121 {{ISBN|1135940541}}</ref>

Under the terms of the Chapultepec Peace Accords which had been signed on 16 January 1992 in [[Chapultepec]], [[Mexico]], the Salvadoran Armed Forces was to be subordinated and removed from the political arena.<ref name="Williams"/> The Ministry of Defense handed the role of internal security to a new body, the National Police Force. The number of soldiers in the Armed Forces was reduced by half. Counter-insurgency forces were demobilised. Military intelligence units reported directly to the president. The constitutional mission, doctrine and recruitment and educational systems of the Armed Forces were redefined.<ref name="Perez"/>

During the civil war, military and right wing paramilitary death squads used exemplary violence with murder and mutilation, massacre and forced displacement to gain control of the populace.<ref name="Collins">Collins C. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NmTiCgAAQBAJ&dq=justice+military+post+civil+war+El+Salvador&pg=PA149 ''Post-transitional Justice: Human Rights Trials in Chile and El Salvador''] Penn State Press, 2010 p154. {{ISBN|0271075708}}</ref> In 1993, a General Amnesty Law was passed by the Salvadoran government. Victims of human rights violations had no redress. International human rights entities such as the [[UNHCR]] made formal objections to the law. Spain found jurisdiction in the matter and indicted twenty retired soldiers who were officers at the time of the killings.<ref>Lessa F. and Payne L. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pB98ePahtH8C&dq=military+accountability+el+salvador&pg=PA204 ''Amnesty in the Age of Human Rights Accountability''] Cambridge University Press, 2012 p204. {{ISBN|1107025001}}</ref>

For many reasons, the armed forces resisted the application of the requirement of the Peace Accord. Junior officers who had volunteered to work in security units did not want to be treated as raw army recruits when their units disbanded. Senior officers feared the autonomy of the military's core activities, such as training, would be lost. Military leaders feared that the loss of military units in rural areas would lead to social and political unrest. The civilian population feared that officers purged from military ranks for human rights violations would join right wing paramilitary organisations.<ref name="Williams"/> {{rp|page=159}}

===Post civil war===
[[File:An unidentified El Salvadoran special forces Soldier keeps a close eye on the borders of Camp Charlie in Al Hillah, Iraq, April 14, 2005.jpg|right|thumb|An unidentified Salvadoran special forces soldier in Camp Charlie in Al Hillah, Iraq, April 14, 2005]]

From 2003 to January 2009, the Salvadoran armed forces were part of the [[Multi-National Force – Iraq]]. El Salvador deployed more than 500 troops, mostly paratroopers and special forces. During the conflict, five Salvadoran soldiers were killed in action and more than 50 were wounded. Salvadoran forces operated next to the [[Spanish Legion]] and the [[U.S. Army]]. They were well regarded by both Spanish and U.S. forces.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-salvador-usa-iraq/u-s-military-chief-thanks-el-salvador-for-iraq-help-idUSN1833087820080119 U.S. military chief thanks El Salvador for Iraq help] Reuters 19 January 2008. Accessed 10 March 2018</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Salvadoran soldiers praised for Iraq role|url=https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2004/may/3/20040503-115511-7092r/|website=washingtontimes.com|date=May 3, 2004|access-date=October 12, 2020}}</ref> The last of the Salvadoran forces withdrew from Iraq in 2009. They were the last Central Americans allies to withdraw from the conflict.

In 2016, a new armed force was raised in El Salvador with the remit of stopping criminal gangs (especially [[MS-13]]) and [[illegal drugs trade|narcotrafficking]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160422022210/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-36098486 |El Salvador unveils new military force to fight gangs] BBC News Latin America. 21 April 2016. Accessed 10 March 2018.</ref>

In 2021, the strength of the Salvadoran armed forces was estimated to be 24,500 active personnel.<ref name=IISSp413/>

=== Crackdown on gangs ===
{{Main|2022 Salvadoran gang crackdown}}
Beginning on 25 March 2022, three days of gang-related violence occurred that left 87 people dead.<ref name="france24.com">{{Cite web |date=10 April 2022 |title=Más de 9.000 pandilleros detenidos en El Salvador en 15 días, dice Bukele |url=https://www.france24.com/es/minuto-a-minuto/20220410-m%C3%A1s-de-9-000-pandilleros-detenidos-en-el-salvador-en-15-d%C3%ADas-dice-bukele |access-date=21 April 2022 |website=France 24 |archive-date=21 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220421024739/https://www.france24.com/es/minuto-a-minuto/20220410-m%C3%A1s-de-9-000-pandilleros-detenidos-en-el-salvador-en-15-d%C3%ADas-dice-bukele |url-status=live }}</ref> In response, President Bukele asked the Salvadoran parliament to ratify a state of emergency.<ref>{{cite web |title=El Salvador declares state of emergency after gang killings |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/3/28/el-salvador-invokes-state-of-emergency-after-62-killings-in-a-day |access-date=21 April 2022 |website=www.aljazeera.com |archive-date=5 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220405234029/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/3/28/el-salvador-invokes-state-of-emergency-after-62-killings-in-a-day |url-status=live }}</ref> On 26 March, Bukele also ordered the police and army to initiate mass-arrests against those responsible for the violence.
[[File:Elementos de seguridad en CECOT.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Soldiers and police officers]]
A day later, [[Legislative Assembly of El Salvador|Congress]] approved a [[state of emergency]] that gives legal coverage to arrest any citizen suspected to be a gang member even with no proof. In addition, Congress also approved reforms to increase the maximum sentence for gang member from nine to 45 years in prison and punish the dissemination of gang messages, including independent journalism talking about the gang crisis, with up to 15 years in prison.

The law was directed against those who "mark" their territories with acronyms of the gangs, a practice that gang members use to intimidate, and threaten with death those who denounce them to the authorities. The Directorate of Penal Centers began to erase the graffiti that the gangs use to mark the territory in which they operate.

The [[MS-13|Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13)]] and [[18th Street gang|Barrio 18 gangs]], among others, were estimated in 2022 to have around some 70,000 members, and as of August 2023, around 72,000 people have been sent to prison as a part of the government crackdown on the gangs.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://diario.elmundo.sv/politica/asi-procesaran-a-los-71976-detenidos-en-el-regimen-de-excepcion|title=Así Procesarán a los 71,976 Detenidos en el Régimen de Excepción|trans-title=This Is How They Will Process the 71,976 Detained in the State of Exception|language=es|date=25 July 2023|access-date=8 August 2022|work=[[El Mundo (El Salvador)|El Mundo]]|first1=Jessica|last1=Guzmán|archive-date=25 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230725195654/https://diario.elmundo.sv/politica/asi-procesaran-a-los-71976-detenidos-en-el-regimen-de-excepcion|url-status=live}}</ref>