Editing Aristotle (section)

== Life ==
In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points.{{efn-ua|See {{harvnb|Shields|2012|pp=3–16}}. {{harvnb|Blits|1999|p=58}} writes that most information about Aristotle's life derives from [[Diogenes Laertius]]' ''[[Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers]]'', which in turn borrows material from earlier, now mostly lost, sources. {{harvnb|Düring|1957}} covers ancient biographies of Aristotle.}} Aristotle was born in 384&nbsp;BC{{efn-ua|That these dates (the first half of the Olympiad year 384/383 BC, and in 322 shortly before the death of Demosthenes) are correct was shown by [[August Boeckh]] (''Kleine Schriften'' VI 195); for further discussion, see [[Felix Jacoby]] on ''[[FGrHist]]'' 244 F 38. Ingemar Düring, ''Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition'', Göteborg, 1957, {{p.|253}}}} in [[Stagira (ancient city)|Stagira]], [[Chalcidice]],<ref>{{harvnb|Anagnostopoulos|2013|p=3}}; {{harvnb|Shields|2012|p=3}}; {{harvnb|Blits|1999|p=58}}; {{harvnb|Aristotle (Greek philosopher)}}</ref> about 55&nbsp;km (34 miles) east of modern-day [[Thessaloniki]].<ref>{{harvnb|McLeisch|1999|p=5}}; {{harvnb|Hazel|2013|p=36}}</ref>{{sfn|Aristoteles-Park in Stagira}} He was the son of [[Nicomachus (father of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]], the personal physician of [[Amyntas III of Macedon|King Amyntas of Macedon]],<ref>{{harvnb|Ogden|2024|p=32}}; {{harvnb|Anagnostopoulos|2013|p=3}}; {{harvnb|Shields|2012|p=5}}; {{harvnb|Nussbaum|Osborne|2014|p=73}}; {{harvnb|Hazel|2013|p=36}}; {{harvnb|Nawotka|2009|p=40}}</ref> and Phaestis, a woman with origins from [[Chalcis]], [[Euboea]].<ref>{{harvnb|Anagnostopoulos|2013|pp=4}}; {{harvnb|Shields|2012|p=5}}; {{harvnb|Hazel|2013|pp=36–37}}; {{harvnb|Reeve|Miller|2015|p=250}}</ref> Nicomachus was said to have belonged to the medical guild of [[Asclepiadae]] and was likely responsible for Aristotle's early interest in biology and medicine.<ref>{{harvnb|Anagnostopoulos|2013|pp=4–5}}; {{harvnb|Shields|2012|p=5}}; {{harvnb|Nussbaum|Osborne|2014|p=73}}; {{harvnb|Lloyd|Brunschwig|Pellegrin|2000|p=554}}</ref> Ancient tradition held that Aristotle's family descended from the legendary physician [[Asclepius]] and his son [[Machaon (mythology)|Machaon]].<ref>{{harvnb|Lloyd|Brunschwig|Pellegrin|2000|pp=554–555}}; {{harvnb|Hall|2018|p=40}}</ref> Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was still at a young age and [[Proxenus of Atarneus]] became his guardian.<ref>{{harvnb|Hall|2018|p=14}}; {{harvnb|Anagnostopoulos|2013|p=4}}; {{harvnb|Shields|2012|p=5}}</ref> Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he probably spent some time in the [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonian]] capital, making his first connections with the [[Argead dynasty|Macedonian monarchy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Anagnostopoulos|2013|page=4}}; {{harvnb|Hazel|2013|p=37}}; {{harvnb|Shields|2012|p=5}}</ref>

[[File:20160518 092 mieza nympheum.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|School of Aristotle in [[Mieza, Macedonia|Mieza]], [[Macedonia, Greece]]]]

At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to [[Classical Athens|Athens]] to continue his education at [[Plato's Academy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Nussbaum|Osborne|2014|p=73}}; {{harvnb|Blits|1999|p=58}}</ref> He became distinguished as a researcher and lecturer, earning for himself the nickname "mind of the school" by his tutor [[Plato]].{{sfn|Hazel|2013|p=37}} In Athens, he probably experienced the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]] as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Mysteries, "to experience is to learn" ({{lang|grc|παθεĩν μαθεĩν}}).{{sfn|Evans|2006|p=18}} Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47&nbsp;BC after Plato's death.<ref>{{harvnb|Nussbaum|Osborne|2014|p=73}}; {{harvnb|Hazel|2013|p=37}}</ref> The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew [[Speusippus]], although it is possible that the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens could have also influenced his decision.{{sfn|Nussbaum|Osborne|2014|p=73}}{{sfn|Aristotle|1984|pp=Introduction}} Aristotle left with [[Xenocrates]] to [[Assos]] in [[Asia Minor]], where he was invited by his former fellow student [[Hermias of Atarneus]]; he stayed there for a few years and left around the time of Hermias' death.{{efn-ua |{{harvnb|Nussbaum|Osborne|2014|p=73}} write that Hermias died in 345&nbsp;BC; {{harvnb|Hazel|2013|p=37}} places Hermias' death in 342&nbsp;BC, the same year as Aristotle's trip back to Macedon, while {{harvnb|Nawotka|2009|p=40}} mentions that Hermias got arrested in 341&nbsp;BC.}} While at Assos, Aristotle and his colleague [[Theophrastus]] did extensive research in [[botany]] and [[marine biology]], which they later continued at the near-by island of [[Lesbos]].<ref>{{harvnb|Shields|2012|p=6}}; {{harvnb|Nussbaum|Osborne|2014|p=73}}; {{harvnb|Hazel|2013|p=37}}</ref> During this time, Aristotle married [[Pythias]], Hermias's adoptive daughter and niece, and had a daughter whom they also named Pythias.{{sfn|Shields|2012|p=6}}

[[File:Universal manual of ready reference - antiquities, history, geography, biography, government, law, politics, industry, invention, science, religion, literature, art, education and miscellany (1904) (14590266027).jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|"Aristotle tutoring Alexander" (1895) by [[Jean Leon Gerome Ferris]]]]

In 343/42&nbsp;BC, Aristotle was invited to [[Pella]] by [[Philip II of Macedon]] to become the tutor to his thirteen-year-old son [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]];<ref>{{harvnb|Wu|2022|p=71}}; {{harvnb|Worthington|2014b|pp=69–70}}; {{harvnb|Nussbaum|Osborne|2014|p=73}}; {{harvnb|Shields|2012|pp=6–7}}; {{harvnb|Nawotka|2009|p=39}}; {{harvnb|Green|1991|p=54}}</ref> a choice perhaps influenced by the relationship of Aristotle's family with the Macedonian dynasty.<ref>{{harvnb|Ogden|2024|p=32}}; {{harvnb|Shields|2012|p=5}}; {{harvnb|Nawotka|2009|pp=39–40}}; {{harvnb|Lloyd|Brunschwig|Pellegrin|2000|p=555}}</ref> Aristotle taught Alexander at the private school of [[Mieza (Macedonia)|Mieza]], in the gardens of the [[Nymph]]s, the royal estate near Pella.<ref>{{harvnb|Ogden|2024|p=32}}; {{harvnb|Worthington|2014a|p=34}}; {{harvnb|Shields|2012|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Nawotka|2009|p=39}}</ref> Alexander's education probably included a number of subjects, such as [[ethics]] and [[politics]],<ref>{{harvnb|Wu|2022|p=71}}; {{harvnb|Nawotka|2009|p=40}}</ref> as well as standard literary texts, like [[Euripides]] and [[Homer]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hornblower|2002|p=91}}; {{harvnb|Hazel|2013|p=37}}</ref> It is likely that during Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, other prominent nobles, like [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]] and [[Cassander]], would have occasionally attended his lectures.<ref>{{harvnb|Worthington|2014a|pp=34–35}}; {{harvnb|Nawotka|2009|pp=41–42}}; {{harvnb|Green|1991|pp=58–59}}</ref> Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and his own attitude towards [[Achaemenid Empire|Persia]] was strongly [[ethnocentric]]. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians".<ref>{{harvnb|Green|1991|pp=58–59}}; {{harvnb|Worthington|2014b|p=96}}</ref> Alexander's education under the guardianship of Aristotle likely lasted for only a few years, as at around the age of sixteen he returned to Pella and was appointed regent of Macedon by his father Philip.<ref>{{harvnb|Worthington|2014b|p=97}}; {{harvnb|Hazel|2013|p=37}}</ref> During this time, Aristotle gifted Alexander an annotated copy of the ''[[Iliad]]'', which is said to have become one of Alexander's most prized possessions.<ref>{{harvnb|Ogden|2024|p=32}}; {{harvnb|Worthington|2014b|pp=97, 186}}; {{harvnb|Nawotka|2009|p=40}}</ref> Scholars speculate that two of Aristotle's now lost works, ''On kingship'' and ''On behalf of the Colonies'', were composed by the philosopher for the young prince.<ref>{{harvnb|Ogden|2024|p=32}}; {{harvnb|Hazel|2013|p=37}} provides the alternative translations ''On Monarchy'' and ''Colonists''</ref> Aristotle returned to Athens for the second and final time a year after Philip II's assassination in 336&nbsp;BC.{{sfn|Shields|2012|p=7}} 

As a [[metic]], Aristotle could not own property in Athens and thus rented a building known as the [[Lyceum (classical)|Lyceum]] (named after the sacred [[Grove (nature)|grove]] of [[Apollo]] ''Lykeios''), in which he established his own school.<ref>{{harvnb|Nussbaum|Osborne|2014|p=73}}; {{harvnb|Hazel|2013|p=37}}; {{harvnb|Shields|2012|p=7}}</ref> The building included a [[Gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasium]] and a [[colonnade]] ({{tlit|grc|peripatos}}), from which the school acquired the name ''[[Peripatetic school|Peripatetic]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Nussbaum|Osborne|2014|p=73}}; {{harvnb|Hazel|2013|p=37}}</ref> Aristotle conducted courses and research at the school for the next twelve years. He often lectured small groups of distinguished students and, along with some of them, such as [[Theophrastus]], [[Eudemus of Rhodes|Eudemus]], and [[Aristoxenus]], Aristotle built a large library which included manuscripts, maps, and museum objects.<ref>{{harvnb|Shields|2012|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Nussbaum|Osborne|2014|p=73}}; {{harvnb|Hazel|2013|p=37}}</ref> While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with [[Herpyllis]] of Stagira. They had a son whom Aristotle named after his father, [[Nicomachus (son of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Shields|2012|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Hazel|2013|p=37}}</ref> This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his philosophical works.<ref>{{harvnb|Shields|2012|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Russell|1972}}</ref> He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in [[treatise]] form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'', ''[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]]'', ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'', ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', ''[[On the Soul]]'' and ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]''. Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to "logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance, and theatre."{{sfn|Humphreys|2009}}

[[File:Aristoteles Louvre.jpg| thumb | upright=0.8 | [[Bust (sculpture)|Portrait bust]] of Aristotle; an [[Imperial Roman]] (1st or 2nd century AD) copy of a lost [[bronze sculpture]] made by [[Lysippos]]]]

While Alexander deeply admired Aristotle, near the end of his life, the two men became estranged having diverging opinions over issues, like the optimal administration of city-states, the treatment of conquered populations, such as the Persians, and philosophical questions, like the definition of braveness.{{Sfn|Wu|2022|pp=72–74}} A widespread speculation in antiquity suggested that Aristotle played a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an [[Hagnothemis|unlikely claim]] made some six years after the death.{{sfn|Green|1991|p=460}} Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322&nbsp;BC, Demophilus and [[Eurymedon the Hierophant]] reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety,{{sfn|Filonik|2013|pp=72–73}} prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in [[Chalcis]], Euboea, at which occasion he was said to have stated "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy"<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|1980|p=216}}; {{harvnb|Gigon|2017|p=41}}; {{harvnb|Düring|1957|p=T44a-e}}</ref> – a reference to Athens's [[Trial of Socrates|trial and execution of Socrates]].{{sfn|Nussbaum|Osborne|2014|p=73}} He died in Chalcis, Euboea{{sfn|Aristotle (Greek philosopher)}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Britton |first=Bianca |date=27 May 2016 |title=Is this Aristotle's tomb? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2016/05/27/europe/greece-aristotle-tomb/index.html |access-date=21 January 2023 |publisher=CNN}}</ref> of natural causes later that same year, having named his student [[Antipater]] as his chief [[executor]] and leaving a [[Will (law)|will]] in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.{{sfn|Haase|1992|p=3862}} Aristotle left his works to Theophrastus, his successor as the head of the Lyceum, who in turn passed them down to [[Neleus of Scepsis]] in Asia Minor. There, the papers remained hidden for protection until they were purchased by the collector [[Apellicon]]. In the meantime, many copies of Aristotle's major works had already begun to circulate and be used in the Lyceum of Athens, [[Alexandria]], and later in Rome.<ref>{{harvnb|Hazel|2013|p=38}}; {{harvnb|Nussbaum|Osborne|2014|p=73}}</ref>