Editing Archimedes Palimpsest (section)

==History==
===Early===
Archimedes lived in the 3rd century BC and wrote his proofs as letters in [[Doric Greek]] addressed to contemporaries, including scholars at the [[Great Library of Alexandria]]. These letters were first compiled into a comprehensive text by [[Isidorus of Miletus]], the architect of the [[Hagia Sophia]] patriarchal church, sometime around AD 530 in the then [[Byzantine Greek]] capital city of Constantinople.<ref name="Edition" />

A copy of Isidorus' edition of Archimedes was made around AD 950 by an anonymous scribe, again in the Byzantine Empire, in a period during which the study of Archimedes flourished in Constantinople in a school founded by the mathematician, engineer, and former Greek Orthodox archbishop of Thessaloniki, [[Leo the Geometer]], a cousin to the [[Ecumenical Patriarch|patriarch]].<ref name=APP/>

This medieval Byzantine manuscript then traveled from Constantinople to [[Jerusalem]], likely sometime after the [[Fourth Crusade|Crusader sack of Byzantine Constantinople]] in 1204.<ref name=APP/> There, in 1229, the Archimedes codex was unbound, scraped and washed, along with at least six other partial parchment manuscripts, including one with works of [[Hypereides]]. Their leaves were folded in half, rebound and reused for a Christian [[liturgical text]] of 177 later numbered leaves, of which 174 are extant (each older folded leaf became two leaves of the liturgical book). The palimpsest remained near Jerusalem through at least the 16th century at the isolated Greek Orthodox monastery of [[Mar Saba]]. At some point before 1840 the palimpsest was brought back by the [[Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem]] to its library (the [[Metochion]] of the Holy Sepulcher) in Constantinople.

===Modern===
The Biblical scholar [[Constantin von Tischendorf]] visited [[Constantinople]] in the 1840s, and, intrigued by the Greek mathematics visible on the palimpsest he found in a [[Greek Orthodox]] library, removed a leaf of it (which is now in the Cambridge University Library). In 1899, the Greek scholar Papadopoulos-Kerameus produced a catalog of the library's manuscripts and included a transcription of several lines of the partially visible underlying text.<ref name=APP/> Upon seeing these lines [[Johan Ludvig Heiberg (historian)|Johan Heiberg]], the world's authority on Archimedes, realized that the work was by Archimedes. When Heiberg studied the palimpsest in Constantinople in 1906, he confirmed that the palimpsest included works by Archimedes thought to have been lost. Heiberg was permitted by the Greek Orthodox Church to take careful photographs of the palimpsest's pages, and from these he produced transcriptions, published between 1910 and 1915, in a complete works of Archimedes. Shortly thereafter Archimedes' [[Greek language|Greek]] text was translated into [[English language|English]] by [[T. L. Heath]]. Before that it was not widely known among mathematicians, physicists or historians.

The manuscript was still in the [[Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem]]'s library (the Metochion of the Holy Sepulchre) in Constantinople in 1920.<ref name=Schulz/> Shortly thereafter, during a turbulent period for the Greek community in Turkey that saw a Turkish victory in the [[Greco-Turkish War (1919–22)]] along with the [[Greek genocide]] and the forced [[population exchange between Greece and Turkey]], the palimpsest disappeared from the Greek church's library in Istanbul.

Sometime between 1923 and 1930, the palimpsest was acquired by Marie Louis Sirieix, a "businessman and traveler to the Orient who lived in Paris."<ref name=Schulz/> Though Sirieix claimed to have bought the manuscript from a monk, who would not in any case have had the authority to sell it, Sirieix had no receipt or documentation for a sale of the valuable manuscript. Stored secretly for years by Sirieix in his cellar, the palimpsest suffered damage from water and mold. In addition, after its disappearance from the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate's library, a forger added copies of medieval evangelical portraits in gold leaf onto four pages in the book in order to increase its sales value, further damaging the text.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/physics/inside-archimedes-palimpsest.html|title=NOVA – Official Website – Inside the Archimedes Palimpsest|website=[[PBS]]|access-date=2017-08-24|archive-date=2017-08-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170815092806/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/physics/inside-archimedes-palimpsest.html|url-status=live}}</ref> These forged gold leaf portraits nearly obliterated the text underneath them, and x-ray fluorescence imaging at the [[Stanford Linear Accelerator Center]] would later be required to reveal it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.slac.stanford.edu/gen/com/slac_pr.html|title=Archimedes Palimpsest – Press Release|access-date=2015-03-16|archive-date=2015-09-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924102700/http://www.slac.stanford.edu/gen/com/slac_pr.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Sirieix died in 1956, and, in 1970, his daughter began attempting quietly to sell the valuable manuscript. Unable to sell it privately, in 1998, she finally turned to [[Christie's]] to sell it in a public auction, risking an ownership dispute.<ref name=Schulz/> The ownership of the palimpsest was immediately contested in federal court in New York in the case of the ''Greek Orthodox [[Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem|Patriarchate of Jerusalem]]'' v. ''[[Christie's]], Inc''. The Greek church contended that the palimpsest had been stolen from its library in Constantinople in the 1920s, during a period of extreme persecution. Judge [[Kimba Wood]] decided in favor of Christie's Auction House on [[laches (equity)|laches]] grounds, and the palimpsest was bought for $2 million by an anonymous American buyer. The lawyer who represented the anonymous buyer stated that the buyer was "a private American" who worked in "the high-tech industry", but was not [[Bill Gates]].<ref name=Hirshfeld/>

===Imaging and digitization===
[[File:ArPalimTyp2.jpg|thumb|After imaging a page from the palimpsest, the original Archimedes text is now seen clearly]]

At the [[Walters Art Museum]] in [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]], the palimpsest was the subject of an extensive imaging study from 1999 to 2008, and conservation (as it had suffered considerably from [[Mold (fungus)|mold]] while in Sirieix's cellar). This was directed by Dr. Will Noel, curator of manuscripts at the Walters Art Museum, and managed by Michael B. Toth of R.B. Toth Associates, with Dr. [[Abigail Quandt]] performing the [[Conservation and restoration of parchment|conservation]] of the manuscript.

The target audiences for the digitisation are Greek scholars, math historians, people building applications, libraries, archives, and scientists interested in the production of the images.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://archimedespalimpsest.net/0_ReadMe.html| title= Archimedes Palimpsest Digital Release README Document| first1= Mike| last1= Toth| first2= Doug| last2= Emery| website= archimedespalimpsest.net| publisher= [[University of Pennsylvania Libraries]]| date= October 29, 2008| access-date= January 4, 2022| archive-date= January 19, 2022| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220119051921/https://archimedespalimpsest.net/0_ReadMe.html| url-status= live}}</ref>

A team of imaging scientists including Dr. Roger L. Easton, Jr. from the [[Rochester Institute of Technology]], Dr. William A. Christens-Barry from Equipoise Imaging, and Dr. Keith Knox (then with Boeing LTS, now retired from the USAF Research Laboratory) used computer processing of digital images from various spectral bands, including ultraviolet, visible, and infrared wavelengths to reveal most of the underlying text, including that of Archimedes. After imaging and digitally processing the entire palimpsest in three spectral bands prior to 2006, in 2007 they reimaged the entire palimpsest in 12 spectral bands, plus [[raking light]]: UV: 365 nanometers; Visible Light: 445, 470, 505, 530, 570, 617, and 625&nbsp;nm; Infrared: 700, 735, and 870&nbsp;nm; and Raking Light: 910 and 470&nbsp;nm. The team digitally processed these images to reveal more of the underlying text with pseudocolor. They also digitized the original Heiberg images. Dr. [[Reviel Netz]] of [[Stanford University]] and Nigel Wilson have produced a diplomatic transcription of the text, filling in gaps in Heiberg's account with these images.<ref>{{cite book| editor-first1= Reviel |editor-last1= Netz| editor-first2= William |editor-last2= Noel | editor-first3= Nigel |editor-last3= Wilson| title= The Archimedes Palimpsest'', Vol. 1. Catalogue and Commentary; Vol. 2. Images and Transcriptions''| publisher= Cambridge University Press| edition= 2011}}</ref>

Sometime after 1938, a forger placed four [[Byzantine art|Byzantine-style]] religious images in the manuscript in an effort to increase its sales value. It appeared that these had rendered the underlying text forever illegible. However, in May 2005, highly focused [[Industrial radiography|X-rays]] produced at the [[Stanford Linear Accelerator Center]] in Menlo Park, California, were used by Drs. Uwe Bergmann and Bob Morton to begin deciphering the parts of the 174-page text that had not yet been revealed. The production of X-ray [[fluorescence]] was described by [[Keith Hodgson]], director of SSRL:<blockquote>[[Synchrotron light]] is created when electrons traveling near the speed of light take a curved path around a storage ring—emitting electromagnetic light in X-ray through infrared wavelengths. The resulting light beam has characteristics that make it ideal for revealing the intricate architecture and utility of many kinds of matter—in this case, the previously hidden work of one of the founding fathers of all science.<ref name="xray">{{cite web |last=Rock Woods |first=Heather |url=http://news-service.stanford.edu/news/2005/may25/archimedes-052505.html |title=Placed under X-ray gaze, Archimedes manuscript yields secrets lost to time |date=May 19, 2005 |access-date=February 8, 2016 |archive-date=May 17, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517101840/http://news-service.stanford.edu/news/2005/may25/archimedes-052505.html |url-status=live }}</ref></blockquote>

In April 2007, it was announced that a new text had been found in the palimpsest, a commentary on [[Aristotle]]'s ''[[Categories (Aristotle)|Categories]]'' running to some 9&nbsp;000 words. Most of this text was recovered in early 2009 by applying [[principal component analysis]] to the three color bands (red, green, and blue) of fluorescent light generated by ultraviolet illumination. Dr. Will Noel said in an interview:
<blockquote>You start thinking striking one palimpsest is gold, and striking two is utterly astonishing. But then something even more extraordinary happened.</blockquote>

This referred to the previous discovery of a text by [[Hypereides]], an [[Athenian]] politician from the fourth century BC, which has also been found within the palimpsest.<ref name="bbc" /> It is from his speech ''Against Diondas'', and was published in 2008 in the academic journal ''Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik'', vol. 165, becoming the first new text from the palimpsest to be published in a scholarly journal.<ref name="deutsch">{{cite journal| last1= Carey| first1= C.| display-authors= etal| url= http://www.uni-koeln.de/phil-fak/ifa/zpe/indices/inhaltsverzeichnis_165.pdf| title= Fragments of Hyperides' '''Against Diondas''' from the Archimedes Palimpsest| department= Inhaltsverzeichnis| journal= Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik| volume= 165| pages= 1–19| access-date= 2009-10-11| archive-date= 2011-11-18| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111118100708/http://www.uni-koeln.de/phil-fak/ifa/zpe/indices/inhaltsverzeichnis_165.pdf| url-status= live}}</ref>

The transcriptions of the book were digitally encoded using the [[Text Encoding Initiative]] guidelines, and metadata for the images and transcriptions included identification and cataloging information based on [[Dublin Core Metadata]] Elements. The metadata and data were managed by Doug Emery of Emery IT.

On October 29, 2008 (the tenth anniversary of the purchase of the palimpsest at auction), all data, including images and transcriptions, were hosted on the Digital Palimpsest Web Page for free use under a [[Creative Commons License]],<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.stoa.org/archives/836| title= The Digital Archimedes Palimpsest Released| first= Dot| last= Porter| publisher= The Stoa Consortium for Electronic Publication in the Humanities| website= stoa.org| date= October 29, 2008| access-date= 2013-12-29| archive-date= 2013-12-30| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131230234829/http://www.stoa.org/archives/836| url-status= live}}</ref> and processed images of the palimpsest in original page order were posted as a Google Book.<ref name=google>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_zX8OG3QoF4C|title=Archimedes Palimpsest|access-date=2009-03-31|via=Google Books|archive-date=2023-04-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230422222913/https://books.google.com/books?id=_zX8OG3QoF4C|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2011, it was the subject of the [[Walters Art Museum]] exhibit "Lost and Found: The Secrets of Archimedes". In 2015, in an experiment into the preservation of digital data, Swiss scientists encoded text from the Archimedes Palimpsest into DNA.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22530084.300-glassedin-dna-makes-the-ultimate-time-capsule.html |title=Glassed-in DNA makes the ultimate time capsule |work=New Scientist |first=Jacob |last=Aron |date=February 11, 2015 |access-date=January 4, 2022 |archive-date=July 11, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711200640/http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22530084.300-glassedin-dna-makes-the-ultimate-time-capsule.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Thanks to its deciphering, some mathematicians suggest it is possible that Archimedes may have invented [[Integral|integration]].