Editing Andrew Carnegie (section)

==Biography==
===Early life===
[[File:Birthplace of Andrew Carnegie, Dunfermline.jpg|thumb|right|Birthplace of Andrew Carnegie in [[Dunfermline]], Scotland]]

Andrew Carnegie was born to Margaret (Morrison) Carnegie and William Carnegie in [[Dunfermline]], Scotland,<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Scirri |first=Kaitlin |title=Andrew Carnegie: Industrialist and Philanthropist |publisher=Cavendish Square Publishing, LLC |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-5026-4890-7 |location=New York, NY |pages=27 |language=en}}</ref> in a typical weaver's cottage with only one main room. It consisted of half the ground floor, which was shared with the neighboring weaver's family.<ref name="MacKay pp23-24">[[#MacKay|MacKay]], pp. 23–24.</ref> The main room served as a living room, dining room and bedroom.<ref name="MacKay pp23-24"/> He was named after his paternal grandfather.<ref name="MacKay pp23-24"/> William Carnegie had a successful weaving business and owned multiple looms.<ref name=":1" /> 

In 1836, the family moved to a larger house in Edgar Street (opposite Reid's Park), following the demand for more heavy [[damask]], from which his father benefited.<ref name="MacKay pp23-24"/> Carnegie was educated at the Free School in Dunfermline, a gift to the town from philanthropist [[Adam Rolland]] of Gask.<ref>''The Edinburgh Magazine and Literary Review,'' September 1819.</ref>

Carnegie's maternal uncle, Scottish political leader [[George Lauder Sr.]], deeply influenced him as a boy by introducing him to [[Robert Burns]]' writings{{sfnp|Edge|2004|p=4}} and historical Scottish heroes such as [[Robert the Bruce]], [[William Wallace]], and [[Rob Roy MacGregor|Rob Roy]]. Lauder's son, also named [[George Lauder (industrialist)|George Lauder]], grew up with Carnegie and later became his business partner in the United States.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Skrabec, Jr. |first=Quentin |title=The Carnegie Boys: The Lieutenants of Andrew Carnegie That Changed America |publisher=McFarland |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7864-6455-5 |location=Jefferson, NC |pages=22 |language=en}}</ref> 

When Carnegie was 12, his father had fallen on tough times as a handloom weaver. Making matters worse, the country was in starvation. His mother helped support the family by assisting her brother and by selling potted meats at her "sweetie shop", becoming the primary breadwinner.<ref name=Nasaw/> Struggling to make ends meet, the Carnegies decided to borrow money from George Lauder, Sr.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thevintagenews.com/2017/02/22/andrew-carnegie-the-railroad-and-steel-magnate-who-played-his-more-imperative-role-as-a-philanthropist/|title=Andrew Carnegie: The railroad and steel magnate who played his more imperative role as a Philanthropist|website=Vintage News|date=February 22, 2017|access-date=February 1, 2019|archive-date=November 15, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191115202956/https://www.thevintagenews.com/2017/02/22/andrew-carnegie-the-railroad-and-steel-magnate-who-played-his-more-imperative-role-as-a-philanthropist/|url-status=live}}</ref> and move to the United States in 1848 for the prospect of a better life. They headed to [[Allegheny, Pennsylvania]], where they heard there was a demand for workers.<ref name="MacKay pp37-38">[[#MacKay|MacKay]], pp. 37–38.</ref> Carnegie's emigration to America was his second journey outside Dunfermline. The first was a family outing to  [[Edinburgh]] to see [[Queen Victoria]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nasaw |first1=David |url=https://archive.org/details/andrewcarnegie00nasa/page/24 |title=Andrew Carnegie |date=2006 |publisher=Penguin Group |isbn=978-1-59420-104-2 |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/andrewcarnegie00nasa/page/24 24] |authorlink=David Nasaw}}</ref>

In September 1848, Carnegie and his family arrived in Allegheny. Carnegie's father struggled to sell his product on his own.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nasaw |first1=David |title=Andrew Carnegie |date=2006 |publisher=Penguin Group |location=New York |isbn=978-1-59420-104-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/andrewcarnegie00nasa/page/33 33] |url=https://archive.org/details/andrewcarnegie00nasa/page/33 }}</ref> Eventually, the father and son both received job offers at Anchor Cotton Mills, a  Scottish-owned facility. Carnegie's first job in 1848 was as a [[bobbin boy]], changing spools of thread in a cotton mill 12 hours a day, 6 days a week in a Pittsburgh cotton factory. His starting wage was $1.20 per week ({{Inflation|US|1.20|1848|r=0|fmt=eq}}{{Inflation/fn|US}}).<ref>''[[#Biography|Autobiography]]'', p. 34.</ref>

His father soon quit his position at the cotton mill, returning to his loom, and was again removed as a substantial breadwinner.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last1=Nasaw|first1=David|url=https://archive.org/details/andrewcarnegie00nasa/page/34|title=Andrew Carnegie|date=2006|publisher=Penguin Group|isbn=978-1-59420-104-2|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/andrewcarnegie00nasa/page/34 34]}}</ref> But Carnegie attracted the attention of John Hay, a Scottish manufacturer of bobbins, who offered him a job for $2.00 per week ({{Inflation|US|2.00|1848|r=0|fmt=eq}}{{Inflation/fn|US}}).<ref>{{Cite book |title=Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie |last=Carnegie |first=Andrew |year=1919 |pages=42}}</ref> 

In his autobiography, Carnegie writes about the hardships he had to endure with this new job:

{{Blockquote|Soon after this Mr. John Hay, a fellow Scotch manufacturer of bobbins in Allegheny City, needed a boy, and asked whether I would not go into his service. I went, and received two dollars per week; but at first the work was even more irksome than the factory. I had to run a small steam-engine and to fire the boiler in the cellar of the bobbin factory. It was too much for me. I found myself night after night, sitting up in bed trying the steam gauges, fearing at one time that the steam was too low and that the workers above would complain that they had not power enough, and at another time that the steam was too high and that the boiler might burst.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://books.apple.com/us/book/autobiography-of-andrew-carnegie/id395687568 |title=Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie |journal=Nature |bibcode=1921Natur.107....2L |last1=Lankester |first1=E. Ray |year=1921 |volume=107 |issue=2679 |page=2 |doi=10.1038/107002a0 |s2cid=4114721 |access-date=January 13, 2018 |archive-date=November 10, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181110003230/https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/autobiography-of-andrew-carnegie/id395687568?mt=11 |url-status=live | issn=0028-0836 }}</ref>}}

===Telegraph===
[[File:Andrew and Thomas Carnegie - Project Gutenberg eText 17976.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Carnegie, age 16, with younger brother Thomas, c.&nbsp;1851]]
In 1849,<ref>Edge (2004) pp. 21–22.</ref> Carnegie became a telegraph messenger boy in the Pittsburgh Office of the Ohio Telegraph Company, at $2.50 per week (${{Inflation|US|2.50|1849|r=0}} by {{#expr:{{CURRENTYEAR}}-1}} inflation)<ref>''[[#Biography|Autobiography]]'', p. 37.</ref> following the recommendation of his uncle. He was a hard worker and would memorize all of the locations of Pittsburgh's businesses and the faces of important men. He made many connections this way. He also paid close attention to his work and quickly learned to distinguish the different sounds the incoming telegraph signals produced. He developed the ability to translate signals by ear, without using the paper slip.<ref>''[[#Biography|Autobiography]]'', pp. 56, 59.</ref> 

Within a year he was promoted to an operator. Carnegie's education and passion for reading were given a boost by [[John Byers Anderson|Colonel James Anderson]], who opened his personal library of 400 volumes to working boys each Saturday night.<ref>''[[#Biography|Autobiography]]'', p. 45.</ref> Carnegie was a consistent borrower and a "[[self-made man]]" in both his economic development and his intellectual and cultural development. He was so grateful to Colonel Anderson for the use of his library that he "resolved, if ever wealth came to me, [to see to it] that other poor boys might receive opportunities similar to those for which we were indebted to the nobleman".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Murray |first1=Stuart A. P. |url=https://archive.org/details/libraryillustrat0000murr |title=The Library: An Illustrated History |date=2009 |publisher=[[Skyhorse Pub.]] |isbn=9781602397064 |location=New York, New York |page=197 |language=en |url-access=registration}}</ref> His capacity, his willingness for hard work, his perseverance, and his alertness soon brought him opportunities.

===Railroads=== 
Starting in 1853, when Carnegie was around 18 years old, [[Thomas A. Scott]] of the [[Pennsylvania Railroad]] employed him as a secretary/telegraph operator at a salary of $4.00 per week (${{Inflation|US|4.00|1853|r=0}} by {{#expr:{{CURRENTYEAR}}-1}} inflation). Carnegie accepted the job with the railroad as he saw more prospects for career growth and experience there than with the telegraph company.<ref name="Nasaw"/> When Carnegie was 24 years old, Scott asked him if he could handle being superintendent of the Western Division of the Pennsylvania Railroad.<ref name="Edge 2004 pg. 35">Edge (2004), p. 35.</ref> 

On December 1, 1859, Carnegie officially became superintendent of the Western Division. He hired his sixteen-year-old brother Tom to be his personal secretary and telegraph operator. Carnegie also hired his cousin, Maria Hogan, who became the first female telegraph operator in the country.<ref>Edge (2004), p. 37.</ref> As superintendent, Carnegie made a salary of $1500 a year (${{Inflation|US|1500|1859|r=-3|fmt=c}} by {{#expr:{{CURRENTYEAR}}-1}} inflation).<ref name="Edge 2004 pg. 35"/> His employment by the Pennsylvania Railroad would be vital to his later success. The railroads were the first big businesses in America, and the Pennsylvania was one of the largest. Carnegie learned much about management and cost control during these years, and from Scott in particular.<ref name="Nasaw">[[#Nasaw|Nasaw]], pp. 54–59, 64–65.</ref>

Scott also helped him with his first investments. Many of these were part of the corruption indulged in by Scott and the president of the Pennsylvania Railroad, [[John Edgar Thomson]], which consisted of inside trading in companies with which the railroad did business, or payoffs made by contracting parties "as part of a [[quid pro quo]]".<ref name="Nasaw_pg59_60">[[#Nasaw|Nasaw]], pp. 59–60.</ref> In 1855, Scott made it possible for Carnegie to invest $500 in the [[Adams Express Company]], which contracted with the Pennsylvania to carry its messengers. The money was secured by his mother's placing of a $600 mortgage on the family's $700 home, but the opportunity was available only because of Carnegie's close relationship with Scott.<ref name="Nasaw_pg59_60"/><ref>''[[Andrew Carnegie#Biography|Autobiography]]'', p. 79.</ref> A few years later, he received a few shares in [[Theodore Tuttle Woodruff]]'s sleeping car company as a reward for holding shares that Woodruff had given to Scott and Thomson, as a payoff. Reinvesting his returns in such inside investments in railroad-related industries (iron, bridges, and [[Track (rail transport)|rails]]), Carnegie slowly accumulated capital, the basis for his later success. Throughout his later career, he made use of his close connections to Thomson and Scott, as he established businesses that supplied rails and bridges to the railroad, offering the two men stakes in his enterprises.

===1860–1865: American Civil War===
[[File:Pullman sleeping car circa 1860s.JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|Pullman sleeping car, where Carnegie made one of his most successful investments]]
Before the [[American Civil War]], Carnegie arranged a merger between Woodruff's company and that of [[George Pullman]], the inventor of the [[Pullman (car or coach)|sleeping car]] for [[first class travel|first-class travel]], which facilitated business travel at distances over {{convert|500|mi}}. The investment proved a success and a source of profit for Woodruff and Carnegie. The young Carnegie continued to work for Pennsylvania's Tom Scott and introduced several improvements in the service.<ref name="EB1911">{{harvnb|Chisholm|1911|pages=364–365}}.</ref>

In the spring of 1861, Carnegie was appointed by Scott, who was now Assistant Secretary of War in charge of military transportation, as Superintendent of the Military Railways and the Union Government's telegraph lines in the East. Carnegie helped open the rail lines into Washington D.C. that the rebels had cut; he rode the locomotive pulling the first brigade of Union troops to reach Washington D.C. Following the defeat of Union forces at [[First Battle of Bull Run|Bull Run]], he personally supervised the transportation of the defeated forces. Under his organization, the telegraph service rendered efficient service to the Union cause and significantly assisted in the eventual victory. Carnegie later joked that he was "the first casualty of the war" when he gained a scar on his cheek from freeing a trapped telegraph wire.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gillam|first=Scott|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EdvvAMBILJQC&q=andrew+carnegie+during+the+civil+war&pg=PA36|title=Andrew Carnegie: Industrial Giant and Philanthropist|date=January 1, 2009|publisher=ABDO|isbn=978-1-60453-521-1|language=en}}</ref>

The defeat of the Confederacy required vast supplies of [[munition]]s, with railroads and telegraph lines being required to deliver them efficiently. The war demonstrated how integral the industries were to Union success.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wall|first1=Joseph Frazier|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5g5EDwAAQBAJ&q=andrew+carnegie+during+the+civil+war&pg=PA194|title=Andrew Carnegie|last2=Frazier|first2=Wall Joseph|date=1970|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-501282-8|language=en}}</ref>

===Keystone Bridge Company===
[[File:Eads Bridge from Laclede's Landing, Sep 2012.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Eads Bridge across the [[Mississippi River]], opened in 1874 using Carnegie steel ]]
In 1864, Carnegie was one of the early investors in the Columbia Oil Company in [[Venango County, Pennsylvania]].<ref>Story Farm, Columbia Farm, Columbia Oil Company

* {{cite web |last1=Randolph |first1=Amy |date=2001 |title=Columbia Oil Farm of the Oil Creek Valley, Venago County, Pennsylvania : 150 Years of Petroleum Legacy |url=http://archives.datapages.com/data/phi/v10_2009/randolph.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726034651/http://archives.datapages.com/data/phi/v10_2009/randolph.htm |archive-date=July 26, 2020 |access-date=March 10, 2019 |publisher=Petroleum History Institute}}
* {{cite web |title=Andrew Carnegie and the Columbia Oil Farm |url=http://www.petroleumhistory.org/OilHistory/pages/Columbia/Columbia.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190315005832/http://www.petroleumhistory.org/OilHistory/pages/Columbia/Columbia.html |archive-date=March 15, 2019 |access-date=March 10, 2019 |work=Oil History |publisher=petroleumhistory.org}}
* {{cite web |date=2001 |title=William Story Farm |url=http://www.petroleumhistory.org/OilHistory/pages/Columbia/Story.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190316042637/http://www.petroleumhistory.org/OilHistory/pages/Columbia/Story.html |archive-date=March 16, 2019 |access-date=March 10, 2019 |publisher=Petroleum History Institute}}</ref> In one year, the firm yielded over $1 million in cash dividends, and petroleum from oil wells on the property sold profitably. The demand for iron products, such as armor for gunboats, cannons, and shells, as well as a hundred other industrial products, made Pittsburgh a center of wartime production. Carnegie worked with others in establishing a steel [[rolling mill]], and steel production and control of industry became the source of his fortune. Carnegie had some investments in the iron industry before the war.

After the war, Carnegie left the railroads to devote his energies to the ironworks trade. Carnegie worked to develop several ironworks, eventually forming the Keystone Bridge Works and the Union Ironworks, in Pittsburgh. Although he had left the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, he remained connected to its management, namely Thomas A. Scott and J. Edgar Thomson. He used his connection to the two men to acquire contracts for his [[Keystone Bridge Company]] and the rails produced by his [[ironworks]]. He also gave stock in his businesses to Scott and Thomson, and the Pennsylvania was his best customer. When he built his first steel plant, he made a point of naming it after Thomson. As well as having good business sense, Carnegie possessed charm and literary knowledge. He was invited to many important social functions, which Carnegie exploited to his advantage.<ref>[[#Nasaw|Nasaw]], pp. 105–107.</ref>

Carnegie, through Keystone, supplied the steel for and owned shares in the landmark [[Eads Bridge]] project across the [[Mississippi River]] at [[St. Louis]], Missouri (completed 1874). This project was an important proof-of-concept for steel technology, which marked the opening of a new steel market.

[[File:Andrew Carnegie circa 1878 - Project Gutenberg eText 17976.jpg|thumb|upright|Carnegie, c.&nbsp;1878]]
Carnegie believed in using his fortune for others and doing more than making money. In 1868, at age 33, he wrote:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Timeline: Rags to Riches {{!}} American Experience {{!}} PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/carnegie-timeline-rags-to-riches/ |access-date=October 18, 2024 |website=www.pbs.org |language=en}}</ref>
{{blockquote|I propose to take an income no greater than $50,000 per annum! Beyond this I need ever earn, make no effort to increase my fortune, but spend the surplus each year for benevolent purposes! Let us cast aside business forever, except for others. Let us settle in Oxford and I shall get a thorough education, making the acquaintance of literary men. I figure that this will take three years' active work. I shall pay especial attention to speaking in public. We can settle in London and I can purchase a controlling interest in some newspaper or live review and give the general management of it attention, taking part in public matters, especially those connected with education and improvement of the poorer classes. Man must have no idol and the amassing of wealth is one of the worst species of [[idolatry]]! No idol is more debasing than the worship of money! Whatever I engage in I must push inordinately; therefore should I be careful to choose that life which will be the most elevating in its character. To continue much longer overwhelmed by business cares and with most of my thoughts wholly upon the way to make more money in the shortest time, must degrade me beyond hope of permanent recovery. I will resign business at thirty-five, but during these ensuing two years I wish to spend the afternoons in receiving instruction and in reading systematically!}}

===Industrialist===
====1875–1900: Steel empire====
[[File:Bessemer converter.jpg|thumb|right|Bessemer converter]]
[[File:US-PA(1891) p750 BESSEMER, THE EDGAR THOMSON STEEL WORKS AND BLAST-FURNACES.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.6|The Edgar Thomson Steel Works and Blast-Furnaces in Braddock, Pennsylvania (1891)]]
Carnegie made his fortune in the steel industry, controlling the most extensive integrated iron and steel operations ever owned by an individual in the United States. One of his two great innovations was in the cheap and efficient mass production of steel by adopting and adapting the [[Bessemer process]], which allowed the high carbon content of [[pig iron]] to be burnt away in a controlled and rapid way during [[steel production]]. Steel prices dropped as a result, and Bessemer steel was rapidly adopted for rails; however, it was not suitable for buildings and bridges.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rosenberg |first=Nathan |url=https://archive.org/details/insideblackboxte00rose/page/90 |title=Inside the Black Box: Technology and Economics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1982 |isbn=978-0-521-27367-1 |location=Cambridge, NY |page=[https://archive.org/details/insideblackboxte00rose/page/90 90] |language=en}} Bessemer steel suffered from nitrogen embrittlement with age</ref>

The second was in his [[vertical integration]] of all suppliers of raw materials. In 1883, Carnegie bought the rival [[Homestead Steel Works]], which included an extensive plant served by tributary coal and iron fields, a {{convert|425|mi|km|adj=mid|-long}} railway, and a line of [[Lake freighter|lake steamships]].<ref name="EB1911"/> In the late 1880s, Carnegie Steel was the largest manufacturer of pig iron, steel rails, and [[coke (fuel)|coke]] in the world, with a capacity to produce approximately 2,000 tons of pig iron per day.

By 1889, the U.S. output of steel exceeded that of the UK, and Carnegie owned a large part of it. Carnegie's empire grew to include the [[Edgar Thomson Steel Works|J. Edgar Thomson Steel Works]] in [[Braddock, Pennsylvania|Braddock]] (named for [[John Edgar Thomson]], Carnegie's former boss and president of the Pennsylvania Railroad), the Pittsburgh Bessemer Steel Works, the [[Lucy Furnace]]s, the Union Iron Mills, the Union Mill (Wilson, Walker & County), the Keystone Bridge Works, the Hartman Steel Works, the Frick Coke Company, and the [[Scotia, Pennsylvania|Scotia]] ore mines. Carnegie combined his assets and those of his associates in 1892 with the launching of the [[Carnegie Steel Company]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andrew-Carnegie |title=Andrew Carnegie {{!}} Biography & Facts |work=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=August 23, 2017 |language=en |archive-date=August 23, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823171925/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andrew-Carnegie |url-status=live }}</ref>

Carnegie's success was also due to his relationship with the railroad industries, which not only relied on steel for track, but were also making money from steel transport. The steel and railroad barons worked closely to negotiate prices instead of allowing free-market competition.<ref>[[#Nasaw|Nasaw]], pp. 3264–3278.</ref>

Besides Carnegie's market manipulation, United States trade tariffs were also working in favor of the steel industry. Carnegie spent energy and resources lobbying Congress for a continuation of favorable tariffs from which he earned millions of dollars a year.<ref>[[#Nasaw|Nasaw]], pp. 7114–7119.</ref> Carnegie tried to keep this information concealed, but legal documents released in 1900, during proceedings with the ex-chairman of Carnegie Steel, [[Henry Clay Frick]], revealed how favorable the tariffs had been.<ref>[[#Nasaw|Nasaw]], pp. 10653–10657.</ref>

====1901: U.S. Steel====
In 1901, Carnegie was 65 years of age and considering retirement. He reformed his enterprises into conventional [[Joint-stock company|joint stock corporation]]s as preparation for this. [[J. P. Morgan|John Pierpont Morgan]] was a banker and America's most important financial deal maker. He had observed how efficiently Carnegie produced profits. He envisioned an integrated steel industry that would cut costs, lower prices to consumers, produce in greater quantities and raise wages to workers. To this end, he needed to buy out Carnegie and several other major producers and integrate them into one company, thereby eliminating duplication and waste. He concluded negotiations on March 2, 1901, and formed the [[U.S. Steel|United States Steel Corporation]]. It was the first corporation in the world with a market capitalization of over $1 billion.

The buyout, secretly negotiated by [[Charles M. Schwab]] (no relation to [[Charles R. Schwab]]), was the largest such industrial takeover in United States history to date. The holdings were incorporated in the United States Steel Corporation, a trust organized by Morgan, and Carnegie retired from business.<ref name="EB1911"/> His steel enterprises were bought out for $303,450,000.<ref name="Hawke 1980"/>

Carnegie's share of this amounted to $225.64 million (in {{Inflation-year|US}}, ${{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|225639000|1901}}}}), which was paid to him in the form of 5%, 50-year gold bonds. The letter agreeing to sell his share was signed on February 26, 1901. On March 2, the circular formally filed the organization and capitalization (at $1.4 billion—4% of the U.S. gross domestic product at the time) of the United States Steel Corporation actually completed the contract. The bonds were to be delivered within two weeks to the Hudson Trust Company of [[Hoboken, New Jersey]], in trust to Robert A. Franks, Carnegie's business secretary. There, a special vault was built to house the physical bulk of nearly $230 million worth of bonds.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Krass |first1=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nwJ-UFP20mMC&q=carnegie+vault+for+us+steel+bonds&pg=PT416 |title=Carnegie |date=2002 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=0471386308 |location=New York |at=Chapter 29 |language=en-us |access-date=December 3, 2019}}</ref>

===Scholar and activist===
====1880–1900====
Carnegie continued his business career; some of his literary intentions were fulfilled. He befriended the English poet [[Matthew Arnold]], the English philosopher [[Herbert Spencer]], and the American humorist [[Mark Twain]], as well as being in correspondence and acquaintance with most of the [[President of the United States|U.S. Presidents]],{{sfnp |Winkler |2006 |p=172}} statesmen, and notable writers.{{sfnp |Winkler |2006 |p=13}}

Carnegie constructed commodious swimming-baths for the people of his hometown in [[Dunfermline]] in 1879. In the following year, Carnegie gave £8,000 for the establishment of a [[Dunfermline Carnegie Library]] in Scotland. In 1884, he gave $50,000 to [[Bellevue Hospital Medical College]] (now part of [[NYU Langone Medical Center|New York University Medical Center]]) to create a [[histology|histological]] laboratory, now called the Carnegie Laboratory.

In 1881, Carnegie took his family, including his 70-year-old mother, on a trip to the United Kingdom. They toured Scotland by coach and enjoyed several receptions en route. The highlight was a return to Dunfermline, where Carnegie's mother laid the foundation stone of a [[Carnegie Library]] which he funded. Carnegie's criticism of British society did not mean dislike; on the contrary, one of Carnegie's ambitions was to act as a [[catalyst]] for a close association between English-speaking peoples. To this end, in the early 1880s in partnership with [[Samuel Storey (Liberal politician)|Samuel Storey]], he purchased numerous newspapers in Britain, all of which were to advocate the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of "the British Republic". Carnegie's charm, aided by his wealth, afforded him many British friends, including Prime Minister [[William Ewart Gladstone]].

In 1886, Carnegie's younger brother Thomas died at age 43. While owning steel works, Carnegie had purchased at low cost the most valuable of the iron ore fields around [[Lake Superior]].

Following his tour of the UK, he wrote about his experiences in a book entitled ''An American Four-in-hand in Britain''. In 1886, Carnegie wrote his most radical work to date, entitled ''Triumphant Democracy''. Liberal in its use of statistics to make its arguments, the book argued his view that the American republican system of government was superior to the British [[monarchy|monarchical]] system. It gave a highly favorable and idealized view of American progress and criticized the British royal family. The cover depicted an upended royal [[crown]] and a broken scepter. The book created considerable controversy in the UK. The book made many Americans appreciate their country's economic progress and sold over 40,000 copies, mostly in the U.S.

[[File:James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce & Andrew Carnegie - Project Gutenberg eText 17976.jpg|thumb|upright|Carnegie, right, with [[James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce]]]]
Although actively involved in running his many businesses, Carnegie had become a regular contributor to numerous magazines, most notably ''[[Nineteenth Century (periodical)|The Nineteenth Century]]'', under the editorship of [[James Thomas Knowles (1831–1908)|James Knowles]], and the influential ''North American Review'', led by the editor [[Lloyd Bryce]]. In 1889, Carnegie published "Wealth" in the June issue of the ''North American Review''.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.swarthmore.edu/SocSci/rbannis1/AIH19th/Carnegie.html |journal=North American Review |title=Wealth |author=Carnegie, Andrew |date=June 1889 |access-date=December 25, 2005 |archive-date=December 20, 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051220024630/http://www.swarthmore.edu/SocSci/rbannis1/AIH19th/Carnegie.html |url-status=live }}</ref> After reading it, Gladstone requested its publication in Britain, where it appeared as "The Gospel of Wealth" in ''[[The Pall Mall Gazette]]''. Carnegie argued that the life of a wealthy industrialist should comprise two parts. The first part was the gathering and the accumulation of wealth. The second part was for the subsequent distribution of this wealth to benevolent causes. Philanthropy was key to making life worthwhile.

Carnegie was a well-regarded writer. He published three books on travel.<ref>Swetnam, George (1980) ''Andrew Carnegie''. Twayne Publishers.</ref>

===Anti-imperialism===
In the aftermath of the [[Spanish–American War]], the United States seemed poised to annex [[Republic of Cuba (1902–1959)|Cuba]], [[Guam]], [[Puerto Rico]] and the [[Insular Government of the Philippine Islands|Philippines]]. Carnegie strongly opposed the idea of American colonies. He opposed the annexation of the Philippines almost to the point of supporting [[William Jennings Bryan]] against McKinley in 1900. In 1898, Carnegie tried to arrange independence for the Philippines. As the conclusion of the Spanish–American War neared, the United States purchased the Philippines from Spain for $20 million. To counter what he perceived as [[American imperialism]], Carnegie personally offered $20 million to the Philippines so that the [[Filipinos|Filipino people]] could purchase their independence from the United States.<ref>[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/carnegie/timeline/timeline2.html Andrew Carnegie timeline of events] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124171215/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/carnegie/timeline/timeline2.html |date=November 24, 2016 }} PBS.</ref> However, nothing came of the offer. In 1898 Carnegie joined the [[American Anti-Imperialist League]], in opposition to the U.S. annexation of the Philippines. Its membership included former presidents of the United States [[Grover Cleveland]] and [[Benjamin Harrison]] and literary figures such as [[Mark Twain]].<ref>Hirschfeld, Katherine. ''Health, Politics and Revolution in Cuba'', p. 117, Transaction Publishers, 2008 {{ISBN|978-1-4128-0863-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Porter, Robert Percival |title=Industrial Cuba: Being a Study of Present Commercial and Industrial Conditions, with Suggestions as to the Opportunities Presented in the Island for American Capital, Enterprise, and Labour|url=https://archive.org/details/industrialcubab00portgoog|year=1899|publisher=G.P. Putnam's Sons|page=[https://archive.org/details/industrialcubab00portgoog/page/n75 43]}}</ref>

===1901–1919: Philanthropist===
{{main|Carnegie library|Carnegie Corporation of New York|Carnegie Endowment for International Peace|Carnegie Institution for Science|Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland|Carnegie United Kingdom Trust|Carnegie Hero Fund|Carnegie Mellon University|Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh}}
{{see also|Carnegie Hall|Tuskegee Institute|Hooker telescope}}
[[File:Carnegie-1903.jpg|thumb|upright|Andrew Carnegie's philanthropy. ''Puck'' magazine cartoon by Louis Dalrymple, 1903]]
Carnegie spent his last years as a philanthropist. From 1901 forward, public attention was turned from the shrewd business acumen which had enabled Carnegie to accumulate such a fortune, to the public-spirited way in which he devoted himself to using it on philanthropic projects. He had written about his views on social subjects and the responsibilities of great wealth in ''Triumphant Democracy'' (1886) and [[The Gospel of Wealth|''Gospel of Wealth'']] (1889). Carnegie devoted the rest of his life to providing capital for purposes of public interest and social and educational advancement. He saved letters of appreciation from those he helped in a desk drawer labeled "Gratitude and Sweet Words."

He provided $25,000 a year to the movement for [[spelling reform]].<ref>[[Joseph Frazier Wall]], ''Andrew Carnegie'' (1970), pp. 891–893.</ref> His organization, the [[Simplified Spelling Board]],<ref name=NYT19060306>[https://www.nytimes.com/1906/03/12/archives/carnegie-assaults-the-spelling-book-to-pay-the-cost-of-reforming.html "Carnegie Assaults the Spelling Book; To Pay the Cost of Reforming English Orthography. Campaign About to Begin Board Named, with Headquarters Here – Local Societies Throughout the Country."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160404030227/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9F02E5D6103EE733A25751C1A9659C946797D6CF&scp=1 |date=April 4, 2016 }}, ''[[The New York Times]]'', March 12, 1906. Retrieved August 28, 2008.</ref> created the ''Handbook of Simplified Spelling'', which was written wholly in reformed spelling.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Simplified spelling board |first1=New York [from old catalog |url=http://archive.org/details/handbooksimplif00boargoog |title=Handbook of simplified spelling, written and comp. under the direction of the Filology committee of the Simplified spelling board |last2=Paine |first2=Henry Gallup |date=1920 |publisher=New York [Simplified spelling board] |others=Harvard University}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |first1=Tom |last1=Scott |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j9Q1cM7_ai4 | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211122/j9Q1cM7_ai4| archive-date=November 22, 2021 | url-status=live|title=Ghoti and the Ministry of Helth: Spelling Reform |date=June 28, 2013}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

====3,000 public libraries====
[[File:Andrew Carnegie, Vanity Fair, 1903-10-29.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Captioned "Free Libraries", Carnegie caricatured by "[[Leslie Ward|Spy]]" for the London magazine ''[[Vanity Fair (British magazine)|Vanity Fair]]'', 1903]]
Among his many philanthropic efforts, the establishment of [[public library|public libraries]] throughout the United States, Britain, Canada, New Zealand, and mostly other English-speaking countries was especially prominent. In this special driving interest of his, Carnegie was inspired by meetings with philanthropist [[Enoch Pratt]] (1808–1896). The [[Enoch Pratt Free Library]] (1886) of [[Baltimore, Maryland]], impressed Carnegie deeply; he said, "Pratt was my guide and inspiration."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pensinger|first=Dr. Kim|title=The Big Cookie Proposition: Insights and Inspiration for a Generous New You|pages=31|language=English}}</ref>

Carnegie turned over management of the library project by 1908 to his staff, led by [[James Bertram (Carnegie secretary)|James Bertram]] (1874–1934).<ref>{{cite book |author=Lagemann |first=Ellen Condliffe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s0AalQle34cC&pg=PA17 |title=The Politics of Knowledge: The Carnegie Corporation, Philanthropy, and Public Policy |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1992 |isbn=9780226467801 |page=17 |language=en-us}}</ref> The first [[Carnegie Library]] opened in 1883 in Dunfermline. His method was to provide funds to build and equip the library, but only on the condition that the local authority matched that by providing the land and a budget for operation and maintenance.{{sfn |Chisholm |1911}}

To secure local interest, in 1885, he gave $500,000 to [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]], for a public library; in 1886, he gave $250,000 to [[Allegheny City, Pennsylvania]], for a music hall and library; and he gave $250,000 to [[Edinburgh]] for a free library. In total, Carnegie funded some 3,000 libraries, located in 47 U.S. states, and also in Canada, Britain, Ireland, Belgium, Serbia, France, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, the [[West Indies]], and [[Fiji]]. He also donated £50,000 to help set up the [[University of Birmingham]] in 1899.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Mickelson |first=Peter |year=1975 |title=American Society and the Public Library in the Thought of Andrew Carnegie |journal=Journal of Library History |language=en |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=117–138 |jstor=25540622}}</ref>

As Van Slyck (1991) showed, during the last years of the 19th century, there was the increasing adoption of the idea that free libraries should be available to the American public. But the design of such libraries was the subject of prolonged and heated debate. On one hand, the library profession called for designs that supported efficiency in administration and operation; on the other, wealthy philanthropists favored buildings that reinforced the paternalistic metaphor and enhanced civic pride. Between 1886 and 1917, Carnegie reformed both library philanthropy and library design, encouraging a closer correspondence between the two.<ref>{{cite journal |author=VanSlyck |first=Abigail A. |year=1991 |title="The Utmost Amount of Effectiv [sic] Accommodation": Andrew Carnegie and the Reform of the American Library |url=https://digitalcommons.conncoll.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=archfacpub |url-status=live |journal=Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians |language=en |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=359–383 |doi=10.2307/990662 |jstor=990662 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414074147/https://digitalcommons.conncoll.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=archfacpub |archive-date=April 14, 2021 |access-date=March 1, 2021 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

<gallery class="center">
File:CarnegieLibraryPittsburghFrontEntrance.jpg|[[Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh]], [[Pittsburgh|Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]]
File:Macomb Public Library.JPG|[[Carnegie library]], [[Macomb, Illinois]]
File:Edinburgh Central Library, George IV Bridge.JPG|[[Edinburgh]] [[Central Library, Edinburgh|Central Library]]
File:TPL Yorkville 2025-05-07.jpg|[[Yorkville Library (Toronto)|Yorkville Library]], [[Ontario]].
File:Syracuse Carnegie Library.jpg|Carnegie Library at [[Syracuse University]], [[New York City|New York]]
File:Carnegie_library_002.jpg|Carnegie Library, [[Moorreesburg]], [[South Africa]]
</gallery>

====Investing in education, science, pensions, civil heroism, music, and world peace====
[[File:CMUquadfromCoLcrop.jpg|thumb|right|[[Carnegie Mellon University]]]]
[[File:PSM V76 D210 Carnegie institution administration buiding in washington.png|thumb|Carnegie Institution administration building in Washington, D.C.]]
In 1900, Carnegie gave $2 million to start the [[Carnegie Institute of Technology]] (CIT) at Pittsburgh and the same amount in 1902 to create the [[Carnegie Institution]] at Washington, D.C., to encourage research and discovery. He later contributed more to these and other schools.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} CIT is now known as [[Carnegie Mellon University]] after it merged with the [[Mellon Institute of Industrial Research]]. Carnegie also served on the Boards of [[Cornell University]] and [[Stevens Institute of Technology]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://web.stevens.edu/catalog/archive/home/campus.html |title=Stevens Institute of Technology Campus and Directions |website=web.stevens.edu |access-date=September 29, 2017 |archive-date=June 6, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160606084643/http://web.stevens.edu/catalog/archive/home/campus.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1911, Carnegie became a sympathetic benefactor to [[George Ellery Hale]], who was trying to build the {{convert|100|in|m|adj=on}} [[Hooker telescope|Hooker Telescope]] at [[Mount Wilson Observatory|Mount Wilson]], and donated an additional ten million dollars to the [[Carnegie Institution for Science|Carnegie Institution]] with the following suggestion to expedite the construction of the telescope: "I hope the work at Mount Wilson will be vigorously pushed, because I am so anxious to hear the expected results from it. I should like to be satisfied before I depart, that we are going to repay to the old land some part of the debt we owe them by revealing more clearly than ever to them the new heavens." The telescope saw [[First light (astronomy)|first light]] on November 2, 1917, with Carnegie still alive.<ref>Simmons, Mike (1984). [http://www.mtwilson.edu/his/art/g1a4.php "History of Mount Wilson Observatory&nbsp;– Building the 100-Inch Telescope"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208191301/http://www.mtwilson.edu/his/art/g1a4.php |date=February 8, 2009}}. [[Mount Wilson Observatory]] Association (MWOA).</ref>

[[File:Pittencrieff Park, Dunfermline.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Pittencrieff Park, [[Dunfermline]], Scotland]]

In 1901, in Scotland, he gave $10 million to establish the [[Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland]]. It was created by a deed that he signed on June 7, 1901, and it was incorporated by royal charter on August 21, 1902. The establishing gift of $10 million was then an unprecedented sum: at the time, total government assistance to all four Scottish universities was about £50,000 a year. The aim of the Trust was to improve and extend the opportunities for scientific research in the Scottish universities and to enable the deserving and qualified youth of Scotland to attend a university.<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 13, 2008 |title=Carnegie Trust - for the Universities of Scotland |url=http://www.carnegie-trust.org/our_history.htm |access-date=February 11, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513232654/http://www.carnegie-trust.org/our_history.htm |archive-date=May 13, 2008 }}</ref> He was subsequently elected [[Lord Rector]] of [[University of St. Andrews]] in December 1901,<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-university-intelligence/138126085/ |newspaper=[[The Times]] |publication-place=London |title=University Intelligence |date=December 7, 1901 |page=11 |issue=36632 |access-date=January 5, 2024 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> and formally installed as such in October 1902,<ref>{{Cite news |date=October 23, 1902 |title=University Intelligence |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-university-intelligence/138126227/ |access-date=January 5, 2024 |newspaper=[[The Times]] |page=9 |language=en |publication-place=London, England |via=Newspapers.com |issue=36906}}</ref> serving until 1907. He also donated large sums of money to Dunfermline, the place of his birth. In addition to a library, Carnegie also bought the private estate which became [[Pittencrieff Park]] and opened it to all members of the public, establishing the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust<ref>{{Scottish charity|SC015710|Carnegie Dunfermline Trust}}</ref> to benefit the people of Dunfermline. A statue of Carnegie was later built between 1913 and 1914 in the park as a commemoration for his creation of the park.<ref>{{Canmore|class=C|num=383697|desc= View of Andrew Carnegie Statue, Pittencrieff Park, Dunfermline. From South East.}}</ref><ref>{{Historic Environment Scotland|desc=PITTENCRIEFF PARK, STATUE OF ANDREW CARNEGIE (LB25970)|num=LB25970|fewer-links=yes|access-date=August 10, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dunfermlinepress.com/news/16133533.Andrew_Carnegie_statue_vandalised/|title=Andrew Carnegie statue vandalised|website=Dunfermline Press|date=April 3, 2018|language=en|access-date=April 3, 2018|archive-date=April 3, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180403114732/http://www.dunfermlinepress.com/news/16133533.Andrew_Carnegie_statue_vandalised/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Carnegie was a major patron of music. He was a founding financial backer of [[Jeannette Thurber]]'s [[National Conservatory of Music of America]] in 1885.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rubin |first=Emanuel |date=1990 |title=Jeannette Meyers Thurber and the National Conservatory of Music |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3052098 |journal=American Music |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=294–325 |doi=10.2307/3052098 |jstor=3052098 |issn=0734-4392 |access-date=October 28, 2022 |archive-date=October 28, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221028220607/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3052098 |url-status=live }}</ref> He built the music performing venue [[Carnegie Hall]] in New York City; it opened in 1891 and remained in his family until 1925. His interest in music led him to fund the construction of 7,000 pipe organs in churches and temples, with no apparent preference for any religious denomination or sect.<ref>"Looking Back Into the Past" (PDF). The Diapason. 47 (2): 22. January 1, 1956.</ref><ref>"Mr. Carnegie Gives To All" (PDF). The Diapason. 2 (3): 3. February 1, 1911.</ref>

He gave a further $10 million in 1913 to endow the [[Carnegie United Kingdom Trust]], a grant-making foundation.<ref>{{Scottish charity |SC012799 |Carnegie United Kingdom Trust}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.carnegieuktrust.org.uk/ |title=Home – Carnegie UK Trust |access-date=March 13, 2013 |archive-date=December 28, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101228172131/http://www.carnegieuktrust.org.uk/ |url-status=live }}</ref> He transferred to the trust the charge of all his existing and future benefactions, other than university benefactions in the United Kingdom. He gave the trustees a wide discretion, and they inaugurated a policy of financing rural library schemes rather than erecting library buildings, and of assisting the musical education of the people rather than granting organs to churches.<ref name="EB1922">{{EB1922|inline=y|wstitle=Carnegie, Andrew|volume=30|page=579}}</ref>

[[File:Tuskegee Institute - faculty.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Carnegie with Black American leader [[Booker T. Washington]] (front row, center) in 1906 while visiting [[Tuskegee Institute]]]]
[[File:La_haye_palais_paix_jardin_face.JPG|thumb|left|upright=0.9|The Peace Palace in the Hague, opened in 1913]]

In 1901, Carnegie also established large pension funds for his former employees at Homestead and, in 1905, for American college professors.<ref name="EB1911"/> The latter fund evolved into [[TIAA-CREF]]. One critical requirement was that church-related schools had to sever their religious connections to get his money.

Carnegie was a large benefactor of the [[Tuskegee Institute]] for Black American education under [[Booker T. Washington]]. He helped Washington create the [[National Negro Business League]].

[[File:Medaille Carneggie Heldenfonds.jpg|thumb|right|80px|Dutch medal of the Carnegie Hero Fund.]]
In 1904, he founded the [[Carnegie Hero Fund]] for the United States and Canada (a few years later also established in the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark, and Germany) for the recognition of deeds of heroism. Carnegie contributed $1.5 million in 1903 for the erection of the [[Peace Palace]] at [[The Hague]]; and he donated $150,000 for a Pan-American Palace in Washington as a home for the International Bureau of American Republics.<ref name="EB1911"/>

When it became obvious that Carnegie could not give away his entire fortune within his lifetime, he established the [[Carnegie Corporation of New York]] in 1911 "to promote the advancement and diffusion of knowledge and understanding" and continue his program of giving.

Carnegie was honored for his philanthropy and support of the arts by initiation as an honorary member of [[Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia]] fraternity on October 14, 1917, at the [[New England Conservatory|New England Conservatory of Music]] in Boston, Massachusetts. The fraternity's mission reflects Carnegie's values by developing young men to share their talents to create harmony in the world.

===Death===
[[File:Andrew Carnegie Gravesite.JPG|thumb|upright|Carnegie's grave at Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in [[Sleepy Hollow, New York]]]]
Carnegie died on August 11, 1919, in [[Lenox, Massachusetts]], at his [[Shadow Brook Farm Historic District|Shadow Brook]] estate, of [[bronchial pneumonia]].<ref>{{cite news |date=August 12, 1919 |title=Andrew Carnegie Dies Of Pneumonia In His 84th Year |work=The New York Times |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1919/08/12/118155506.pdf |url-status=live |access-date=August 1, 2008 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1919/08/12/118155506.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |quote=Andrew Carnegie died at Shadow Brook of bronchial pneumonia at 7:10 o'clock this morning.}}</ref><ref name="Krass">Krass (2002), Ch. "The Carnegie Legacy".</ref> He had already given away $350,695,653 (approximately US${{Formatprice|5980000000}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars)<ref>{{cite web |title=CPI Inflation Calculator |url=https://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl?cost1=350695&year1=191901&year2=202201 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231231152758/https://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl?cost1=350695&year1=191901&year2=202201 |archive-date=December 31, 2023 |access-date=December 24, 2018 |publisher=Bureau of Labor Statistics}}</ref> of his wealth. After his death, his last $30 million was given to foundations, charities, and to pensioners.<ref>{{cite news |title=Carnegie's Estate, At Time Of Death, About $30,000,000 |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1919/08/29/103460462.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1919/08/29/103460462.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |work=The New York Times |date=August 29, 1919 |access-date=August 1, 2008}}</ref>

He was buried at [[Sleepy Hollow Cemetery]] in [[Sleepy Hollow, New York]]. The grave site is located on the Arcadia Hebron plot of land at the corner of Summit Avenue and Dingle Road. Carnegie is buried only a few yards away from union organizer [[Samuel Gompers]], another important figure of industry in the [[Gilded Age]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sleepyhollowcemetery.org/wpress/wp-content/uploads/2009/07/sleepy-hollow-cemetery-map.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209080936/http://sleepyhollowcemetery.org/wpress/wp-content/uploads/2009/07/sleepy-hollow-cemetery-map.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 9, 2011 |title=Sleepy Hollow Cemetery Map |year=2009 |publisher=Sleepy Hollow Cemetery Historic Fund |access-date=April 19, 2010 }}</ref>