Editing Ancient Egypt (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of ancient Egypt|Population history of Egypt}}

The [[Nile]] has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history. The fertile floodplain of the Nile gave humans the opportunity to develop a settled [[Ancient Egyptian agriculture|agricultural economy]] and a more sophisticated, centralized society that became a cornerstone in the history of human civilization.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=16, 65–66}}

{{Ancient Egypt graphical timeline}}

===Predynastic period===
{{Main|Predynastic Egypt}}
[[File:Vase with gazelles-E 28023- Egypte louvre 316.jpg|thumb|A typical, [[Naqada II]] (Predynastic Period), jar decorated with gazelles]]

In Predynastic and [[Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)|Early Dynastic]] times, the [[African humid period|Egyptian climate was much less arid than it is today]]. Large regions of Egypt were [[savanna]] and traversed by herds of grazing [[ungulates]]. Foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs, and the Nile region supported large populations of [[Anseriformes|waterfowl]]. Hunting would have been common for Egyptians, and this is also the period when many animals were first [[Domestication|domesticated]].{{sfnp|Ikram|1992|p=5}}

By about [[6th millennium BC|5500&nbsp;BC]], small tribes living in the Nile valley had developed into a series of cultures demonstrating firm control of agriculture and [[animal husbandry]], and identifiable by their [[ancient Egyptian pottery|pottery]] and personal items, such as combs, bracelets, and beads. The largest of these early cultures in upper (Southern) Egypt was the [[Badarian culture]], which probably originated in the [[Western Desert (Egypt)|Western Desert]]; it was known for its high-quality ceramics, [[stone tool]]s, and its use of copper.{{sfnp|Hayes|1964|p=220}}

The Badari was followed by the [[Naqada culture]]: the Naqada I ([[Amratian culture|Amratian]]), the Naqada II ([[Gerzeh culture|Gerzeh]]), and Naqada III ([[Semainean]]).{{sfnp|Kemp|1989|p=14}} These brought a number of technological improvements. As early as the Naqada I Period, predynastic [[Egyptians]] imported [[obsidian]] from [[History of Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], used to shape blades and other objects from [[Lithic flake|flakes]].{{sfnp|Aston|Harrell|Shaw|2000|pp=46–47}}{{sfnp|Aston|1994|pp=23–26}} Mutual trade with the [[Levant]] was established during Naqada II ({{circa|3600–3350 BC}}); this period was also the beginning of [[Egypt-Mesopotamia relations|trade with Mesopotamia]], which continued into the early dynastic period and beyond.{{sfnp|Ataç|2014|pp=424–425}} Over a period of about 1,000 years, the Naqada culture developed from a few small farming communities into a powerful civilization whose leaders were in complete control of the people and resources of the Nile valley.{{sfnp|Chronology of the Naqada Period|2001}} Establishing a power center at [[Nekhen]], and later at [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]], [[Naqada III]] leaders expanded their control of Egypt northwards along the [[Nile Delta|Nile]].{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=64–64}} They also traded with [[Nubia]] to the south, the oases of the [[Libyan Desert|western desert]] to the west, and the cultures of the [[eastern Mediterranean]] and [[Near East]] to the east.{{sfnmp|1a1=Shaw|1y=2003|1p=61|2a1=Ataç|2y=2014|2pp=424–425}}

The Naqada culture manufactured a diverse selection of material goods, reflective of the increasing power and wealth of the elite, as well as societal personal-use items, which included combs, small statuary, painted pottery, high quality [[hand drill (hieroglyph)|decorative stone vases]], [[cosmetic palette]]s, and jewelry made of gold, [[lapis]], and [[ivory]]. They also developed a [[ceramic glaze]] known as [[Egyptian faience|faience]], which was used well into the [[Roman Egypt |Roman Period]] to decorate cups, amulets, and figurines.{{sfnp|Nicholson|Peltenburg|2000|pp=178–179}}{{sfnp|Faience in different Periods|2000}} During the last predynastic phase, the Naqada culture began using written symbols that eventually were developed into a full system of [[Egyptian hieroglyphs |hieroglyphs]] for writing the ancient Egyptian language.{{sfnp|Allen|2000|p=1}}

[[File:Tomb 100 Hierakompolis, Naqada II culture (c. 3500-3200 BCE).jpg|thumb|center|upright=3|Early tomb painting from [[Nekhen]], {{circa|3500 BC}}, Naqada, possibly Gerzeh culture]]

===Early Dynastic Period ({{circa|3150–2686}} BC)===
{{Main|Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)}}

The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to the early [[Sumer]]ian-[[Akkadian Empire|Akkadian]] civilization of [[Mesopotamia]] and of ancient [[Elam]]. The third-century{{nbsp}}BC Egyptian priest [[Manetho]] grouped the long line of kings from [[Menes]] to his own time into 30 dynasties, a system still used today. He began his official history with the king named "Meni" (or Menes in Greek), who was believed to have united the two kingdoms of [[Upper Egypt|Upper]] and [[Lower Egypt]].{{sfnp|Clayton|1994|p=6}}
[[File:Narmer Palette.jpg|thumb|The [[Narmer Palette]] depicts the unification of the Two Lands.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=32}}]]

The transition to a unified state happened more gradually than ancient Egyptian writers represented, and there is no contemporary record of Menes. Some scholars now believe, however, that the mythical Menes may have been the king [[Narmer]], who is depicted wearing [[Regalia of the Pharaoh|royal regalia]] on the ceremonial ''[[Narmer Palette]]'', in a symbolic act of unification.{{sfnp|Clayton|1994|pp=12–13}} In the Early Dynastic Period, which began about 3000{{nbsp}}BC, the first of the Dynastic kings solidified control over Lower Egypt by establishing a capital at [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]], from which he could control the [[labor force]] and agriculture of the fertile [[Nile delta |delta region]], as well as the lucrative and critical [[trade route]]s to the [[Levant]]. The increasing power and wealth of the kings during the early dynastic period was reflected in their elaborate [[mastaba]] tombs and [[mortuary cult]] structures at Abydos, which were used to celebrate the [[deified king]] after his death.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=66–67}} The strong institution of kingship developed by the kings served to legitimize state control over the land, labor, and resources that were essential to the survival and growth of ancient Egyptian civilization.{{sfnp|Early Dynastic Egypt|2001}}

===Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC)===
{{Main|Old Kingdom of Egypt}}
[[File:All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg|thumb|The [[Giza pyramid complex|pyramids of Giza]] are among the most recognizable symbols of ancient Egyptian civilization.]]

Major advances in architecture, art, and technology were made during the [[Old Kingdom]], fueled by the increased [[agricultural productivity]] and resulting population growth, made possible by a well-developed central administration.{{sfnp|James|2005|p=40}} Some of ancient Egypt's crowning achievements, the [[Giza Necropolis|Giza pyramids]] and [[Great Sphinx of Giza|Great Sphinx]], were constructed during the Old Kingdom. Under the direction of the [[vizier (Ancient Egypt)|vizier]], state officials collected taxes, coordinated irrigation projects to improve [[crop yield]], and drafted peasants to work on construction projects.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=93–95}} 
[[File:Khafre statue.jpg|thumb|right|[[Khafre]] enthroned]]

With the rising importance of central administration in Egypt, a new class of educated scribes and officials arose who were granted estates by the king in payment for their services. Kings also made land grants to their mortuary cults and local [[Egyptian temple|temples]], to ensure that these institutions had the resources to worship the king after his death. Scholars believe that five centuries of these practices slowly eroded the economic vitality of Egypt, and that the economy could no longer afford to support a large centralized administration.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=104–107}} As the power of the kings diminished, regional governors called [[nomarch]]s began to challenge the supremacy of the office of king. This, coupled with [[4.2 kiloyear event|severe droughts]] between 2200 and 2150{{nbsp}}BC,{{sfnp|Hassan|2011}} is believed to have caused the country to enter the 140-year period of famine and strife known as the First Intermediate Period.{{sfnp|Clayton|1994|p=69}}

===First Intermediate Period (2181–2055 BC)===
{{Main|First Intermediate Period of Egypt}}

After Egypt's [[central government]] collapsed at the end of the Old Kingdom, the administration could no longer support or stabilize the country's economy. The ensuing food shortages and political disputes escalated into famines and small-scale civil wars. Yet despite difficult problems, local leaders, owing no tribute to the king, used their new-found independence to establish a thriving culture in the provinces. Once in control of their own resources, the provinces became economically richer—which was demonstrated by larger and better burials among all social classes.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=111–112}}

Free from their loyalties to the king, local rulers began competing with each other for territorial control and [[political power]]. By 2160{{nbsp}}BC, rulers in [[Heracleopolis Magna|Herakleopolis]] controlled Lower Egypt in the north, while a rival clan based in [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]], the [[Intef I|Intef family]], took control of Upper Egypt in the south. As the Intefs grew in power and expanded their control northward, a clash between the two rival dynasties became inevitable. Around 2055{{nbsp}}BC the northern Theban forces under [[Mentuhotep II|Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II]] finally defeated the Herakleopolitan rulers, reuniting the Two Lands. They inaugurated a period of economic and cultural renaissance known as the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]].{{sfnp|Clayton|1994|p=29}}

===Middle Kingdom (2134–1690 BC)===
{{Main|Middle Kingdom of Egypt}}

[[File:GuardianStatueofAmenemhmatII.jpg|thumb|A figure wearing the red crown of Lower Egypt, most probably [[Amenemhat II]] or [[Senwosret II]]. It functioned as a divine guardian for the [[Imiut fetish|imiut]]; the divine kilt suggests that the statuette was not merely a representation of the living ruler.{{sfnp|Guardian Figure 14.3.17|2022}}]]
[[File:Stone pyramidion of Middle Kingdom pharaoh Amenemhat III.jpg|thumb|[[Pyramidion of Amenemhat III]], capstone of the [[Pyramid of Amenemhat III (Dahshur)|Black Pyramid]]]]
[[File:Coffin of Nakhtkhnum MET DP354909.jpg|thumb|Coffin of Khnumnakht in 12th dynasty style, with palace facade, columns of inscriptions, and two Wedjat eyes{{sfn|Grajetzki|2007|pp=41–54}}]]

The kings of the Middle Kingdom restored the country's stability, which saw a resurgence of art and monumental building projects, and a new flourishing of [[ancient Egyptian literature|literature]].{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=142, 171}} Mentuhotep II and his [[Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt|Eleventh Dynasty]] successors ruled from Thebes, but the vizier [[Amenemhat I]], upon assuming the kingship at the beginning of the [[Twelfth dynasty of Egypt|Twelfth Dynasty]] around 1985{{nbsp}}BC, shifted the kingdom's capital to the city of [[Itjtawy]], located in [[Faiyum Oasis|Faiyum]].{{sfnp|Clayton|1994|p=79}} From Itjtawy, the kings of the Twelfth Dynasty undertook a far-sighted [[land reclamation]] and irrigation scheme to increase agricultural output in the region. Moreover, the military reconquered territory in [[Nubia]] that was rich in quarries and gold mines, while laborers built a defensive structure in the Eastern Delta, called the "[[Walls of the Ruler]]", to defend against foreign attack.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=148–152}}

With the kings having secured the country militarily and politically and with vast agricultural and mineral wealth at their disposal, the nation's population, arts, and religion flourished. The Middle Kingdom displayed an increase in expressions of personal piety toward the gods. Middle Kingdom literature featured sophisticated themes and characters written in a confident, eloquent style.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=169–171}} The [[relief]] and portrait sculpture of the period captured subtle, individual details that reached new heights of technical sophistication.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=90}}

===Second Intermediate Period (1674–1549 BC) and the Hyksos===
{{Main|Second Intermediate Period of Egypt}}

Around 1785{{nbsp}}BC, as the power of the Middle Kingdom kings weakened, a [[Western Asia]]n people called the [[Hyksos]], who had already settled in the Delta, seized control of Egypt and established their capital at [[Avaris]], forcing the former central government to retreat to [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]]. The king was treated as a vassal and expected to pay tribute.{{sfnp|Ryholt|1997|p=310}} The Hyksos ('foreign rulers') retained Egyptian models of government and identified as kings, thereby integrating Egyptian elements into their culture.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=180–182}}

After retreating south, the native Theban kings found themselves trapped between the Canaanite Hyksos ruling the north and the Hyksos' [[Nubian people|Nubian]] allies, the [[Kingdom of Kush|Kushites]], to the south. After years of vassalage, Thebes gathered enough strength to challenge the Hyksos in a conflict that lasted more than 30 years, until 1555{{nbsp}}BC.{{sfnp|Ryholt|1997|p=310}} [[Ahmose I]] waged a series of campaigns that permanently eradicated the Hyksos' presence in Egypt. He is considered the founder of the [[Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt|Eighteenth Dynasty]], and the military became a central priority for his successors, who sought to expand Egypt's borders and attempted to gain mastery of the [[Ancient Near East|Near East]].{{sfnp|Redford|1992|pp=129, 148–149}}

===New Kingdom (1549–1069 BC)===
{{Main|New Kingdom of Egypt}}

[[File:CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg|thumb|Pharaohs' tombs were provided with vast quantities of wealth, such as the [[Tutankhamun's mask|golden mask from the mummy of Tutankhamun]].]]

The New Kingdom [[pharaoh]]s established a period of unprecedented prosperity by securing their borders and strengthening diplomatic ties with their neighbours, including the [[Mitanni]] Empire, [[Assyria]], and [[Canaan]]. Military campaigns waged under [[Thutmose I|Tuthmosis I]] and his grandson [[Thutmose III|Tuthmosis III]] extended the influence of the pharaohs to the largest empire Egypt had ever seen.

Between their reigns, [[Hatshepsut]], a queen who established herself as pharaoh, launched many building projects, including the restoration of temples damaged by the Hyksos, and sent trading expeditions to [[Land of Punt|Punt]] and the Sinai.{{sfnp|Clayton|1994|pp=104–107}} When Tuthmosis III died in 1425{{nbsp}}BC, Egypt had an empire extending from [[Niya (kingdom)|Niya]] in north west [[Syria]] to the [[Cataracts of the Nile|Fourth Cataract]] of the Nile in [[Nubia]], cementing loyalties and opening access to critical imports such as [[bronze]] and [[wood]].{{sfnp|James|2005|p=48}}

The New Kingdom pharaohs began a large-scale building campaign to promote the god [[Amun]], whose growing cult was based in [[Karnak]]. They also constructed monuments to glorify their own achievements, both real and imagined. The Karnak temple is the largest Egyptian temple ever built.{{sfnp|Bleiberg|2005|p=49–50}}

Around 1350{{nbsp}}BC, the stability of the New Kingdom was threatened when Amenhotep IV ascended the throne and instituted a series of radical and chaotic reforms. Changing his name to [[Akhenaten]], he touted the previously obscure [[Solar deity|sun deity]] [[Aten]] as the [[God|supreme deity]], suppressed the worship of most other deities, and moved the capital to the new city of Akhetaten (modern-day [[Amarna]]).{{sfnp|Aldred|1988|p=259}} He was devoted to his new [[Atenism|religion]] and [[Amarna art|artistic style]]. After his death, the cult of the Aten was quickly abandoned and the traditional religious order restored. The subsequent pharaohs, [[Tutankhamun]], [[Ay (pharaoh)|Ay]], and [[Horemheb]], worked to erase all mention of Akhenaten's heresy, now known as the [[Amarna Period]].{{sfnp|O'Connor|Cline|2001|p=273}}

[[File:SFEC EGYPT ABUSIMBEL 2006-003.JPG|thumb|Two (north side) of the four colossal statues of [[Ramesses II]] flank the entrance of his temple [[Abu Simbel]].]]
Around 1279{{nbsp}}BC, [[Ramesses II]], also known as Ramesses the Great, ascended the throne, and went on to build more temples, erect more statues and obelisks, and sire more children than any other pharaoh in history.{{efn|With his two principal wives and large harem, Ramesses II sired more than 100 children. ({{harvp|Clayton|1994|p=146}})}} A bold military leader, Ramesses II led his army against the Hittites in the [[Battle of Kadesh]] (in modern [[Syria]]) and, after fighting to a stalemate, finally agreed to the first recorded [[Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty|peace treaty]], around 1258{{nbsp}}BC.{{sfnp|Tyldesley|2001|pp=76–77}}

Egypt's wealth, however, made it a tempting target for invasion, particularly by the [[Ancient Libya|Libyan]] [[Berber people|Berbers]] to the west, and the [[Sea Peoples]], a conjectured confederation of seafarers from the [[Aegean Sea]].{{efn|From {{harvp|Killebrew|Lehmann|2013|p=2}}: "First coined in 1881 by the French Egyptologist G. Maspero (1896), the somewhat misleading term "Sea Peoples" encompasses the ethnonyms Lukka, Sherden, Shekelesh, Teresh, Eqwesh, Denyen, Sikil / Tjekker, Weshesh, and Peleset (Philistines). Footnote: The modern term "Sea Peoples" refers to peoples that appear in several New Kingdom Egyptian texts as originating from "islands"... The use of quotation marks in association with the term "Sea Peoples" in our title is intended to draw attention to the problematic nature of this commonly used term. It is noteworthy that the designation "of the sea" appears only in relation to the Sherden, Shekelesh, and Eqwesh. Subsequently, this term was applied somewhat indiscriminately to several additional ethnonyms, including the Philistines, who are portrayed in their earliest appearance as invaders from the north during the reigns of Merenptah and Ramesses III."{{blist|From {{harvp|Drews|1993|pp=48–61}}: "The thesis that a great "migration of the Sea Peoples" occurred ca. 1200 B.C. is supposedly based on Egyptian inscriptions, one from the reign of Merneptah and another from the reign of Ramesses III. Yet in the inscriptions themselves such a migration nowhere appears. After reviewing what the Egyptian texts have to say about 'the sea peoples', one Egyptologist (Wolfgang Helck) recently remarked that although some things are unclear, "eins ist aber sicher: Nach den agyptischen Texten haben wir es nicht mit einer 'Volkerwanderung' zu tun." Thus the migration hypothesis is based not on the inscriptions themselves but on their interpretation."}}}} Initially, the military was able to [[Battle of Perire|repel]] these invasions, but Egypt eventually lost control of its remaining territories in southern [[Canaan]], much of it falling to the Assyrians. The effects of external threats were exacerbated by internal problems such as corruption, tomb robbery, and [[End of the 19th Dynasty|civil unrest]]. After regaining their power, the high priests at the [[Precinct of Amun-Re|temple of Amun]] in Thebes accumulated vast tracts of land and wealth, and their expanded power splintered the country during the Third Intermediate Period.{{sfnp|James|2005|p=54}}

===Third Intermediate Period (1069–653 BC)===
{{Main|Third Intermediate Period of Egypt}}

Following the death of [[Ramesses XI]] in 1078{{nbsp}}BC, [[Smendes]] assumed authority over the northern part of Egypt, ruling from the city of [[Tanis, Egypt|Tanis]]. The south was effectively controlled by the [[Theban High Priests of Amun (21st and 22nd Dynasty)|High Priests of Amun at Thebes]], who recognized Smendes in name only.{{sfnp|Cerny|1975|p=645}} During this time, Libyans had been settling in the western delta, and chieftains of these settlers began increasing their autonomy. Libyan princes took control of the delta under [[Shoshenq I]] in 945{{nbsp}}BC, founding the so-called Libyan or Bubastite dynasty that would rule for some 200 years. Shoshenq also gained control of southern Egypt by placing his family members in important priestly positions. Libyan control began to erode as a rival dynasty in the delta arose in [[Leontopolis]], and [[Cushi|Kushites]] threatened from the south.

[[File:Rulers of Kush, Kerma Museum.jpg|thumb|left|Statues of two pharaohs of Egypt's [[Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-Fifth Dynasty]] and several other [[Kingdom of Kush|Kushite]] kings, [[Kerma Museum]]{{sfnp|Bonnet|2006|p=128}}]]

Around 727{{nbsp}}BC the Kushite king [[Piye]] invaded northward, seizing control of Thebes and eventually the Delta, which established the [[25th Dynasty]].{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|p=347}} During the 25th Dynasty, Pharaoh [[Taharqa]] created an empire nearly as large as the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]]'s. Twenty-fifth Dynasty pharaohs built, or restored, temples and monuments throughout the Nile valley, including at Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, and Jebel Barkal.{{sfnp|Bonnet|2006|pp=142–154}} During this period, the Nile valley saw the first widespread construction of [[Nubian pyramids|pyramids (many in modern Sudan)]] since the Middle Kingdom.{{sfnp|Mokhtar|1990|pp=161–163}}{{sfnp|Emberling|2011|pp=9–11}}{{sfnp|Silverman|1997|pp=36–37}}

Egypt's far-reaching prestige declined considerably toward the end of the Third Intermediate Period. Its foreign allies had fallen into the [[Assyria]]n sphere of influence, and by 700{{nbsp}}BC war between the two states became inevitable. Between 671 and 667{{nbsp}}BC the Assyrians began the [[Assyrian conquest of Egypt]]. The reigns of both [[Taharqa]] and his successor, [[Tantamani|Tanutamun]], were filled with frequent conflict with the Assyrians. Ultimately, the Assyrians pushed the Kushites back into Nubia, occupied Memphis, and [[Sack of Thebes|sacked the temples of Thebes]].{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=352–353}}

===Late Period (653–332 BC)===
{{Main|Late Period of ancient Egypt|History of Persian Egypt}}

The Assyrians left control of Egypt to a series of vassals who became known as the Saite kings of the [[Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-Sixth Dynasty]]. By 653{{nbsp}}BC, the Saite king [[Psamtik I]] was able to oust the Assyrians with the help of Greek mercenaries, who were recruited to form Egypt's first [[Ancient Egyptian navy|navy]]. [[Colonies in antiquity|Greek influence]] expanded greatly as the [[Polis|city-state]] of [[Naucratis]] became the home of Greeks in the Nile Delta. The Saite kings based in the new capital of [[Sais, Egypt|Sais]] witnessed a brief but spirited resurgence in the economy and culture, but in 525{{nbsp}}BC, the Persian Empire, led by [[Cambyses II]], began its conquest of Egypt, eventually defeating the pharaoh [[Psamtik III]] at the [[Battle of Pelusium]]. Cambyses II then assumed the formal title of pharaoh, but ruled Egypt from Iran, leaving Egypt under the control of a [[satrap]]. A few revolts against the Persians marked the 5th century{{nbsp}}BC, but Egypt was never able to overthrow the Persians until the end of the century.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=365-369, 374-375, 377}}

Following its annexation by Persia, Egypt was joined with [[Cyprus]] and [[Phoenicia]] in the sixth satrapy of the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid Persian Empire]]. This first period of Persian rule over Egypt, also known as the [[Twenty-Seventh Dynasty]], ended in 402{{nbsp}}BC, when Egypt regained independence under a series of native dynasties. The last of these dynasties, the [[Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt|Thirtieth]], proved to be the last native royal house of ancient Egypt, ending with the kingship of [[Nectanebo II]]. A brief restoration of Persian rule, sometimes known as the [[Achaemenid Empire|Thirty-First Dynasty]], began in 343{{nbsp}}BC, but shortly after, in 332{{nbsp}}BC, the Persian ruler Mazaces handed Egypt over to [[Alexander the Great]] without a fight.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|p=377–382}}

===Ptolemaic period (332–30 BC)===
{{Main|Ptolemaic Kingdom}}

[[File:Ring with engraved portrait of Ptolemy VI Philometor (3rd–2nd century BCE) - 2009.jpg|thumb|Portrait of [[Ptolemy VI Philometor]] wearing the [[Pschent|double crown of Egypt]]]]

In 332{{nbsp}}BC, [[Alexander the Great]] conquered Egypt with little resistance from the [[Persia]]ns and was welcomed by the Egyptians as a deliverer. The administration established by Alexander's successors, the [[Ancient Macedonians|Macedonian]] [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]], was based on an Egyptian model and based in the new [[Capital (political)|capital city]] of [[Alexandria]]. The city showcased the power and prestige of Hellenistic rule, and became a centre of learning and culture that included the famous [[Library of Alexandria]] and the [[Mouseion]].{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=388, 399-400}} The [[Lighthouse of Alexandria]] lit the way for the many ships that kept trade flowing through the city—as the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemies]] made commerce and revenue-generating enterprises, such as papyrus manufacturing, their top priority.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|p=405}}

[[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic culture]] did not supplant native Egyptian culture, as the Ptolemies supported time-honored traditions in an effort to secure the loyalty of the populace. They built new temples in Egyptian style, supported traditional cults, and portrayed themselves as pharaohs. Some traditions merged, as Greek and [[Egyptian mythology|Egyptian gods]] were [[Syncretic religion|syncretized]] into composite deities, such as [[Serapis]], and [[Ancient Greek|classical Greek]] forms of sculpture influenced traditional Egyptian motifs. Despite their efforts to appease the Egyptians, the Ptolemies were challenged by native rebellion, bitter family rivalries, and frequent mob violence in Alexandria.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=404, 406, 409-412}} In addition, as [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] relied more heavily on imports of grain from Egypt, the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] took great interest in the political situation in the country. Continued Egyptian revolts, ambitious politicians, and powerful opponents from the Near East made this situation unstable, leading Rome to send forces to secure the country as a province of its empire.{{sfnp|James|2005|p=62}}

===Roman period (30 BC – AD 642)===
{{Main|Roman Egypt}}
[[File:Fayum-22.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Fayum mummy portraits]] epitomize the meeting of Egyptian and Roman cultures.]]

Egypt became a province of the [[Roman Empire]] in 30{{nbsp}}BC, following the defeat of [[Mark Antony]] and [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemaic]] Queen [[Cleopatra VII]] by [[Octavian]] (later [[Roman emperor|Emperor]] Augustus) in the [[Battle of Actium]]. The Romans relied heavily on grain shipments from Egypt, and the [[Roman army]], under the control of a prefect appointed by the emperor, quelled rebellions, strictly enforced the collection of heavy taxes, and prevented attacks by bandits, which had become a notorious problem during the period.{{sfnp|James|2005|p=63}} Alexandria became an increasingly important center on the trade route with the orient, as exotic luxuries were in high demand in Rome.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|p=426}}

Although the Romans had a more hostile attitude than the Greeks towards the Egyptians, some traditions such as mummification and worship of the traditional gods continued.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|p=422}} The art of mummy portraiture flourished, and some Roman emperors had themselves depicted as pharaohs, though not to the extent that the Ptolemies had. The former lived outside Egypt and did not perform the ceremonial functions of Egyptian kingship. Local administration became Roman in style and closed to native Egyptians.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|p=422}}

From the mid-first century AD, [[Christianity]] took root in Egypt and it was originally seen as another cult that could be accepted. However, it was an uncompromising religion that sought to win converts from the pagan [[Ancient Egyptian religion|Egyptian]] and [[Hellenistic religion|Greco-Roman]] religions and threatened popular religious traditions. This led to the persecution of converts to Christianity, culminating in the great purges of [[Diocletian]] starting in 303, but eventually Christianity won out.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|p=431}} In 391, the Christian emperor [[Theodosius I|Theodosius]] introduced legislation that banned pagan rites and closed temples.{{sfnp|Chadwick|2001|p=373}} Alexandria became the scene of great anti-pagan riots with public and private religious imagery destroyed.{{sfnp|MacMullen|1984|p=63}} As a consequence, Egypt's native religious culture was continually in decline. While the native population continued to speak [[Egyptian language|their language]], the ability to read [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyphic writing]] slowly disappeared as the role of the Egyptian temple priests and priestesses diminished. The temples themselves were sometimes converted to [[church (building)|churches]] or abandoned to the desert.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|p=445}}