Editing Amsterdam (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of Amsterdam}}
{{For timeline}}

===Prehistory===
Due to its geographical location in what used to be wet [[Mire|peatland]], the founding of Amsterdam is later than other [[History of urban centers in the Low Countries|urban centres in the Low Countries]]. However, around the area of what later became Amsterdam, farmers settled as early as three millennia ago. They lived along the prehistoric [[IJ (Amsterdam)|IJ]] river and upstream of its [[tributary]] Amstel. The prehistoric IJ was a shallow and quiet stream in peatland behind [[beach ridge]]s. This secluded area was able to grow into an important local settlement centre, especially in the late [[Bronze Age Europe|Bronze Age]], the [[Iron Age Europe|Iron Age]] and the [[Roman Empire|Roman Age]]. [[Neolithic]] and Roman artefacts have also been found in the prehistoric [[Amstel]] bedding under Amsterdam's [[Damrak]] and [[Rokin]], such as shards of [[Bell Beaker culture]] [[pottery]] (2200–2000 BC) and a granite grinding stone (2700–2750 BC),<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gawronski |first=J |date=2017 |title=Ontstaan uit een storm; De vroegste geschiedenis van Amsterdam archeologisch en landschappelijk belicht |trans-title=Born from a storm; The earliest history of Amsterdam from an archaeological and landscape perspective. |url=https://www.theobakker.net/pdf/TX_Gawronski2017JbAmstelodamum_10.pdf |journal=Jaarboek van het Genootschap Amstelodamum |language=Dutch |location=Amsterdam |publisher=University of Amsterdam |volume=109 |access-date=5 January 2021}}, pp. 69–71.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Below the Surface – Archeologische vondsten Noord/Zuidlijn Amsterdam |url=https://belowthesurface.amsterdam/en/vondsten|access-date=25 February 2021 |website=belowthesurface.amsterdam}}</ref> but the location of these artefacts around the river banks of the Amstel probably points to the presence of a modest semi-permanent or seasonal settlement. Until water issues were controlled, a permanent settlement would not have been possible, since the river mouth and the banks of the Amstel in this period in time were too wet for permanent habitation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gawronski |first=J |date=2017 |title=Ontstaan uit een storm; De vroegste geschiedenis van Amsterdam archeologisch en landschappelijk belicht |trans-title=Born from a storm; The earliest history of Amsterdam from an archaeological and landscape perspective. |url=https://www.theobakker.net/pdf/TX_Gawronski2017JbAmstelodamum_10.pdf |journal=Jaarboek van het Genootschap Amstelodamum |language=Dutch |location=Amsterdam |publisher=University of Amsterdam |volume=109 |access-date=5 January 2021}}, pp. 62–63.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kranendonk |first1=P. |last2=Kluiving |first2=S. J. |last3=Troelstra |first3=S. R. |title=Chrono- and archaeostratigraphy and development of the River Amstel: results of the North/South underground line excavations, Amsterdam, the Netherlands<!--sic-->|journal=Netherlands Journal of Geosciences |date=December 2015 |volume=94 |issue=4 |pages=333–352 |doi=10.1017/njg.2014.38 |bibcode=2015NJGeo..94..333K |s2cid=109933628 |language=en |issn=0016-7746|doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Founding===
{{Hatnote|See also [[Names of European cities in different languages: A|Other names of Amsterdam]]}}

The origins of Amsterdam are linked to the development of a dam on the [[Amstel]] River called ''[[Amstelland|Amestelle]]'', meaning 'watery area', from ''[[wikt:Aa|Aa(m)]]'' 'river' + ''[[wikt:stelling|stelle]]'' 'site at a shoreline', 'river bank'.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Plaatsnamen en hun betekenis |url=http://www.volkoomen.nl/Plaatsnamen%20en%20hun%20betekenis.htm|access-date=21 February 2021 |website=www.volkoomen.nl}}</ref> In this area, [[land reclamation]] started as early as the late 10th century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 October 2008 |title=Amsterdam 200 jaar ouder dan aangenomen |url=http://www.nu.nl/news/1801750/80/rss/%27Amsterdam_200_jaar_ouder_dan_aangenomen%27.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081025045803/http://www.nu.nl/news/1801750/80/rss/%27Amsterdam_200_jaar_ouder_dan_aangenomen%27.html |archive-date=25 October 2008 |access-date=22 October 2008 |publisher=Nu.nl |language=nl}}</ref> Amestelle was located along a side arm of the IJ. This sidearm took its name from the eponymous land: Amstel. Amestelle was inhabited by farmers, who lived more inland and more upstream, where the land was not as wet as at the banks of the downstream river mouth. These farmers were starting the reclamation around upstream [[Ouderkerk aan de Amstel]], and later at the other side of the river at [[Amstelveen]]. The [[Van Amstel family]], known in documents by this name since 1019,<ref name=":6" /> held the stewardship in this northwestern nook of the ecclesiastical district of the [[Prince-Bishopric of Utrecht|bishop of Utrecht]]. The family later served also under the [[County of Holland|count of Holland]].

A major turning point in the development of the Amstel River mouth was the [[All Saints' Flood (1170)|All Saint's Flood of 1170]]. In an extremely short time, the shallow river IJ turned into a wide estuary, which from then on offered the Amstel an open connection to the [[Zuiderzee]], [[IJssel]], and waterways further afield. This made the water flow of the Amstel more active, so excess water could be drained better. With drier banks, the downstream Amstel mouth became attractive for permanent habitation. Moreover, the river had grown from an insignificant peat stream into a junction of international waterways.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gawronski |first=J. |date=2017 |title=Ontstaan uit een storm; De vroegste geschiedenis van Amsterdam archeologisch en landschappelijk belicht |trans-title=Born from a storm; The earliest history of Amsterdam from a landscape and archaeological perspective. |url=https://www.theobakker.net/pdf/TX_Gawronski2017JbAmstelodamum_10.pdf |journal=Jaarboek van het Genootschap Amstelodamum |language=Dutch |location=Amsterdam |publisher=University of Amsterdam |volume=109 |access-date=5 January 2021}}, pp. 75–77.</ref> A settlement was built here immediately after the landscape change of 1170. Right from the start of its foundation, it focused on traffic, production, and trade; not on farming, as opposed to how communities had lived further upstream for the past 200 years and northward for thousands of years.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gawronski |first=J. |date=2017 |title=Ontstaan uit een storm; De vroegste geschiedenis van Amsterdam archeologisch en landschappelijk belicht |trans-title=Born from a storm; The earliest history of Amsterdam from afrom a landscape and archaeological perspective. |url=https://www.theobakker.net/pdf/TX_Gawronski2017JbAmstelodamum_10.pdf |journal=Jaarboek van het Genootschap Amstelodamum |language=Dutch |location=Amsterdam |publisher=University of Amsterdam |volume=109 |access-date=5 January 2021}}, pp. 84–85.</ref> The construction of a dam at the mouth of the Amstel, eponymously named [[Dam Square|Dam]], is historically estimated to have occurred between 1264 and 1275. The settlement first appeared in a document from 1275, concerning a [[Road toll (historical)|road toll]] granted by the [[Floris V, Count of Holland|count of Holland Floris V]] to the residents ''apud Amestelledamme'' 'at the dam in the Amstel' or 'at the dam of Amstelland'.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gawronski |first=J |date=2017 |title=Ontstaan uit een storm; De vroegste geschiedenis van Amsterdam archeologisch en landschappelijk belicht |trans-title=Born from a storm; The earliest history of Amsterdam from afrom a landscape and archaeological perspective. |url=https://www.theobakker.net/pdf/TX_Gawronski2017JbAmstelodamum_10.pdf |journal=Jaarboek van het Genootschap Amstelodamum |language=Dutch |location=Amsterdam |publisher=University of Amsterdam |volume=109 |access-date=5 January 2021}}, p. 55.</ref><ref name="Amestelledamme1">{{Cite web |title=Bron Amestelledamme |url=https://geschiedenislokaalamsterdam.nl/bronnen/amestelledamme |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240419115025/https://geschiedenislokaalamsterdam.nl/bronnen/amestelledamme |archive-date=19 April 2024 |access-date=3 September 2024 |website=Geschiedenis Lokaal Amsterdam}}</ref> This allowed the inhabitants of the village to travel freely through the [[County of Holland]], paying no tolls at bridges, locks and dams.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The toll privilege of 1275 in the Amsterdam City Archives |url=http://stadsarchief.amsterdam.nl/english/amsterdam_treasures/trade/toll_privilege/index.en.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106010052/http://stadsarchief.amsterdam.nl/english/amsterdam_treasures/trade/toll_privilege/index.en.html |archive-date=6 January 2016 |access-date=10 October 2010 |publisher=Stadsarchief.amsterdam.nl}}</ref> This was a move in a years-long struggle for power in the area between the count of Holland and the Amstel family who governed the area on behalf of the bishop of Utrecht.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Amsterdam |title=De geschiedenis van Amsterdam |url=https://www.amsterdam.nl/toerisme-vrije-tijd/over-amsterdam/geschiedenis/ |access-date=10 January 2023 |website=Amsterdam.nl |language=nl}}</ref> By 1327, the name had developed into ''Aemsterdam''.{{sfn|Berns|Daan|1993|p=91}}{{sfn|Mak|1994|pp=18–20}}

{{See also|van Dam}}

===Middle Ages===
[[File:Amsterdam (6578772447).jpg|thumb|left|The [[Oude Kerk, Amsterdam|Oude Kerk]] was consecrated in 1306 AD.]]The bishop of Utrecht granted Amsterdam zone [[City rights in the Low Countries|rights]] in either 1300 or 1306.<ref name="amnlgeschedenis">{{Cite web |title=De geschiedenis van Amsterdam |url=http://amsterdam.nl/stad_in_beeld/geschiedenis/de_geschiedenis_van#Stadsrechten |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080518134246/http://amsterdam.nl/stad_in_beeld/geschiedenis/de_geschiedenis_van |archive-date=18 May 2008 |access-date=21 May 2008 |publisher=Municipality of Amsterdam |language=nl}}</ref> The {{interlanguage link|Mirakel van Amsterdam|nl}} in 1345 rendered the city an important place of [[pilgrimage]]. During the heyday of the ''[[Stille Omgang]]'', which became the expression of the pilgrimage after the [[Protestant Reformation]],<ref>Charles Caspers & Peter Jan Margry, ''Het Mirakel van Amsterdam. Biografie van een betwiste devotie'' (Amsterdam: Prometheus, 2017) pp. 59–60.</ref><ref name="stilleomgang">{{Cite web |title=Mirakel van Amsterdam |url=http://www.trouw.nl/laatstenieuws/laatstenieuws/article936256.ece/Katholieken_verzameld_voor_Mirakel_van_Amsterdam |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090808045508/http://www.trouw.nl/laatstenieuws/laatstenieuws/article936256.ece/Katholieken_verzameld_voor_Mirakel_van_Amsterdam |archive-date=8 August 2009 |access-date=21 May 2008 |language=nl}}</ref> up to 90,000 pilgrims came to Amsterdam.

From the 14th century on, Amsterdam flourished, largely from trade with the [[Hanseatic League]]. From the 15th century on the city established an independent [[Baltic maritime trade (c. 1400–1800)|trade route with the Baltic Sea]] in grain and timber, cutting out the Hanseatic League as middlemen. The city became the staple market of Europe for [[bulk cargo]]. This was made possible due to innovations in the [[Herring|herring fishery]], from which Amsterdam reaped great wealth.<ref name=":7" /> Herring had demand in markets all around Europe. Inventions of on-board [[gibbing]] and the [[Herring buss|haringbuis]] in 1415, made longer voyages feasible and hence enabled Dutch fishermen to follow the herring [[Shoaling and schooling|shoals]] far from the coasts, giving them a monopoly in the industry.

The herring industry relied on international trade cooperation and large initial investments in ships. This required many highly skilled and unskilled workers to cooperate, as well as the import of the necessary raw materials to turn an unfinished product into a marketable one. This required merchants to then sell it throughout the continent and bookkeepers and accountants to divide the profit. In short, the herring industry was setting up the foundations for what would later become the transcontinental trade system and the [[Dutch Golden Age]], with Amsterdam at its centre,<ref name=":8" /> hence the saying "Amsterdam is built on Herringbones".<ref name=":9" />

===Conflict with Spain===
[[File:Bartholomeus van der Helst, Banquet of the Amsterdam Civic Guard in Celebration of the Peace of Münster.jpg|upright=1.5|thumb|Amsterdam citizens celebrating the [[Peace of Münster]], 30 January 1648. Painting by [[Bartholomeus van der Helst]]]]
The Low Countries were part of the Hapsburg inheritance and came under the Spanish monarchy in the early sixteenth century. The Dutch rebelled against [[Philip II of Spain]], who led a defense of Catholicism during the Protestant Reformation. The main reasons for the uprising were the imposition of new taxes, the tenth penny, and the [[religious persecution]] of Protestants by the newly introduced [[Inquisition of the Netherlands|Inquisition]]. The revolt escalated into the [[Eighty Years' War]], which ultimately led to Dutch independence.<ref name="80yearswar">{{Cite web |title=Eighty Years' War |url=http://dutchrevolt.leidenuniv.nl/nederlands/default.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512110316/http://dutchrevolt.leidenuniv.nl/nederlands/default.htm |archive-date=12 May 2008 |access-date=21 May 2008 |publisher=Leiden University |language=nl}}</ref> Strongly pushed by [[Dutch Revolt]] leader [[William the Silent]], the [[Dutch Republic]] became known for its relative [[History of religion in the Netherlands|religious]] tolerance. [[History of the Jews in the Netherlands|Jews]] from the [[Iberian Peninsula]], Protestant [[Huguenot]]s from France, prosperous merchants, and printers from [[Flanders]], and economic and religious refugees from the Spanish-controlled parts of the [[Low Countries]] found safety in Amsterdam. The influx of Flemish printers and the city's intellectual tolerance made Amsterdam a centre for the European [[freedom of the press|free press]].<ref>A case in point is that after [[Galileo affair|his trial and sentencing]] in Rome in 1633, [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] chose [[Lodewijk Elzevir]] in Amsterdam to publish one of his finest works, ''[[Two New Sciences]]''. See Wade Rowland (2003), ''Galileo's Mistake, A new look at the epic confrontation between Galileo and the Church'', New York: [[Arcade Publishing]], {{ISBN|1-55970-684-8}}, p. 260.</ref>

=== Centre of the Dutch Golden Age ===
[[File:The_courtyard_of_the_Beurs_in_Amsterdam,_by_Emanuel_de_Witte.jpg|upright|thumb|left|Courtyard of the [[Amsterdam Stock Exchange]] by [[Emanuel de Witte]], 1653. The [[Amsterdam Stock Exchange]] was the first [[stock exchange]] to introduce continuous trade in the early 17th century.<ref name="Braudel">{{Cite book |last=Braudel |first=Fernand |url=https://archive.org/details/civilizationcapi01brau |title=Civilization and capitalism 15th–18th century: The wheels of commerce |date=1983 |publisher=Harper & Row |isbn=978-0060150914 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}</ref>]]

During the 17th century, Amsterdam experienced what is considered its ''[[Dutch Golden Age|Golden Age]]'', during which it became the wealthiest city in the Western world.<ref>Haverkamp-Bergmann, E. ''Rembrandt; The Night Watch''. New Jersey: [[Princeton University Press]], 1982, p. 57.</ref> Ships sailed from Amsterdam to the [[Baltic Sea]], the Caribbean, North America, and Africa, as well as present-day [[Indonesia]], India, [[Sri Lanka]], and [[Brazil]], forming the basis of a worldwide trading network. Amsterdam's merchants had the largest share in both the [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC) and the [[Dutch West India Company]]. These companies acquired overseas possessions that later became [[Dutch Empire|Dutch colonies]].

Amsterdam was Europe's most important hub for the shipment of goods and was the leading [[financial centre]] of the Western world.<ref>[http://www.uncp.edu/home/rwb/Amsterdam_l.html Amsterdam in the 17th century] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826132532/http://www.uncp.edu/home/rwb/Amsterdam_l.html |date=26 August 2009 }}, The University of [[North Carolina]] at Pembroke</ref> In 1602, the Amsterdam office of the Dutch East India Company became the world's first [[stock exchange]] by trading in its own shares.<ref name="The oldest share">{{Cite web |title=The oldest share |url=http://www.oldest-share.com/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509123937/http://www.oldest-share.com/ |archive-date=9 May 2008 |access-date=22 May 2008}}</ref> The [[Bank of Amsterdam]] started operations in 1609, acting as a full-service bank for Dutch merchant bankers and as a reserve bank.

From the 17th century onwards, Amsterdam also became involved in the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. The city was a major destination port for Dutch [[slave ship]]s participating in the [[triangular trade]], which lasted until the [[Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands|United Netherlands]] abolished the Netherlands' involvement in the trade in 1814 at the request of the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]]. Amsterdam was also a member of the [[Society of Suriname]], an organisation founded to oversee the management of the Dutch colony of [[Surinam (Dutch colony)|Surinam]], which was economically dependent on [[slave plantation]]s. On 1 July 2021, the [[mayor of Amsterdam]], [[Femke Halsema]], apologised for the city's involvement in the slave trade.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/01/amsterdam-mayor-apologises-for-citys-past-role-in-slave-trade |title=Amsterdam mayor apologises for city's past role in slave trade |work=The Guardian |agency=Associated Press |date=1 July 2021 |access-date=27 October 2022}}</ref>

=== Decline and modernization ===
Amsterdam's prosperity declined during the 18th and early 19th centuries. The [[Anglo-Dutch Wars|wars]] of the [[Dutch Republic]] with [[Kingdom of England|England]] (latterly, [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]]) and France took their toll on the city. During the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] and the [[Napoleonic Wars]], Amsterdam's significance reached its lowest point, with Holland being absorbed into the [[First French Empire|French Empire]]. However, the later establishment of the [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]] in 1815 marked a turning point.

[[File:Old-Amsterdam 1891-street-1.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|right|View of Vijzelstraat looking towards the [[Muntplein, Amsterdam|Muntplein]], 1891]]
The end of the 19th century is sometimes called Amsterdam's second Golden Age.<ref name="Amsterdam City Walks">{{Cite web |title=Amsterdam through the ages -A medieval village becomes a global city |url=http://www.amsterdamcitywalks.com/english/agenda.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080501115531/http://www.amsterdamcitywalks.com/english/agenda.html |archive-date=1 May 2008 |access-date=21 May 2008}}</ref> New museums, a railway station, and the {{Lang|nl|[[Concertgebouw, Amsterdam|Concertgebouw]]|italic=no}} were built; At the same time, the [[Industrial Revolution]] reached the city. The [[Amsterdam–Rhine Canal]] was dug to give Amsterdam a direct connection to the [[Rhine]], and the [[North Sea Canal]] was dug to give the port a shorter connection to the [[North Sea]]. Both projects dramatically improved commerce with the rest of Europe and the world. In 1906, [[Joseph Conrad]] gave a brief description of Amsterdam as seen from the seaside, in ''The Mirror of the Sea''.

===20th century – present===
{{More citations needed section|date=April 2025}}[[File:Amsterdam photochrom2.jpg|thumb|left|Photochrom of Amsterdam's [[Dam Square]] at the beginning of the 20th century]]
Shortly before the [[First World War]], the city started to expand again, and new suburbs were built. Even though the Netherlands remained neutral in this war, Amsterdam suffered a food shortage, and heating fuel became scarce. The shortages sparked riots in which several people were killed. These riots are known as the ''Aardappeloproer'' (Potato Rebellion). People started looting stores and warehouses to get supplies, mainly food.<ref name="aardappeloproer">{{Cite web |title=Aardappeloproer – Legermuseum |url=http://www.collectie.legermuseum.nl/sites/strategion/contents/i004516/arma39%20het%20aardappeloproer%20in%201917.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528004443/http://www.collectie.legermuseum.nl/sites/strategion/contents/i004516/arma39%20het%20aardappeloproer%20in%201917.pdf |archive-date=28 May 2008 |access-date=21 May 2008 |language=nl}}</ref>

[[File:Jan Philip Albach, Afb ANWH00199000048.jpg|thumb|The rebuilt [[Magere Brug]], around 1938.]]
On 1 January 1921, after a flood in 1916, the depleted municipalities of Durgerdam, Holysloot, Zunderdorp and [[Schellingwoude]], all lying north of Amsterdam, were, at their own request, annexed to the city.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Amsterdam city archives |url=https://stadsarchief.amsterdam.nl |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006135130/https://stadsarchief.amsterdam.nl/ |archive-date=6 October 2014 |access-date=4 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.centraledorpenraad.nl/landelijk-noord/historie |title=Historie |work=centaledorpenraad.nl |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140711234152/http://www.centraledorpenraad.nl/landelijk-noord/historie |archive-date=11 July 2014}}</ref> Between the wars, the city continued to expand, most notably to the west of the [[Jordaan]] district in the [[Frederik Hendrikbuurt]] and surrounding neighbourhoods.

[[Nazi Germany]] [[Battle of the Netherlands|invaded the Netherlands]] on 10 May 1940 and took control of the country. Some Amsterdam citizens sheltered Jews, thereby exposing themselves and their families to a high risk of being imprisoned or sent to concentration camps. More than 100,000 [[Dutch Jews]] were deported and murdered in [[Nazi concentration camps]], including 56,521 victims in [[Auschwitz]] and a further number of 34,082 accounted for in [[Sobibor]]. Around 60,000 Jewish inhabitants, including Jewish prewar refugees from Austria and Germany, were living in Amsterdam at the time of the Nazi occupation. Only those provided with a safe haven, avoiding deportation and denunciation, or the very few who returned from the camps at the end of the war, managed to survive.

At first the German occupation authorities were very cautious, wanting to convince the city inhabitants of their sincerity. However, their outlook soon turned to cynicism and brutality. A cause in the change of their behaviour was an attack by a Dutch resistance fighter against a collaborator belonging to the paramilitary Dutch fascist organisation, the NSB. The injured man died and in response [[Heinrich Himmler]] ordered reprisals.427 Amsterdam Jews were arrested on 22 February, 1941 and sent to [[Mauthausen]] concentration camp. Only two people survived. 

Incensed, a broad spectrum of passive resistance was organized by the Dutch Underground. Trade unions, among them socialist and [[Communist Party]] activists, led the protest. Their outcry received support from white collar employees in the civil service and support from the local diocese of the Church. Approval was also given and encouraged by the Dutch government-in-exile under [[Queen Wilhelmina]] in London. 

The German authorities were taken completely by surprise by the level of resistance known as the [[February strike]]. 300,000 people participated in the protest against the arrests of Jews. However, the occupier soon responded crudely and brutally, smashing union and illegal party activity. With the edifice of resistance removed the SS and German police apparatus, supported by collaborators in the Dutch auxiliary police, arrested thousands of defenceless Jews in Amsterdam's Jewish Quarter. The two main waves of arrest, culminating in deportation, occurred on 26 May 1943 and on 20 June 1943. 

The most famous deportee was the young Jewish girl [[Anne Frank]], whose safe hiding place with her family was betrayed and discovered in August, 1944. After a spell at the 'holding camp' in Westerbork Anna and her family were sent to [[Auschwitz]], where her mother was murdered. From there she and her sister Margot were moved onto [[Bergen-Belsen concentration camp]] where they died amidst appalling and inhumane conditions in early 1945.<ref name="deportation">{{Cite web |title=Deportation to camps |url=http://www.hollandscheschouwburg.nl/site_en/deportatie/kader.html |access-date=21 May 2008 |publisher=Hollandsche Schouwburg}}</ref> 

At the end of the Second World War, and as a consequence of the Nazi occupation, Amsterdam was in a state of crisis. Communication with the rest of the country broke down, and food and fuel became scarce. Many citizens traveled to the countryside to forage. Dogs, cats, raw [[sugar beet]]s, and [[tulip]] bulbs&mdash;cooked to a pulp&mdash;were consumed to stay alive.<ref name="hongerwinter">{{Cite web |title=Kou en strijd in een barre winter |url=http://www.nos.nl/nosjournaal/dossiers/60jaarbevrijding/60jaar_hongerwinter.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080123174846/http://www.nos.nl/nosjournaal/dossiers/60jaarbevrijding/60jaar_hongerwinter.html#C |archive-date=23 January 2008 |access-date=21 May 2008 |publisher=NOS |language=nl}}</ref> Many trees in Amsterdam were cut down for fuel, and wood was taken from the houses, apartments and other buildings of deported Jews. The city was finally liberated by Canadian forces on 5 May 1945, shortly before the end of the war in Europe.

[[File:Enorme menigte op de Amstellaan te Amsterdam Op de achtergrond de zgn wolkenkrabber, Bestanddeelnr 900-2830.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.75|People celebrating the [[Liberation Day (Netherlands)|liberation of the Netherlands]] at the end of [[World War II]] on 8 May 1945]]
Many new suburbs, such as [[Osdorp]], [[Slotervaart (neighborhood)|Slotervaart]], [[Slotermeer]] and [[Geuzenveld]], were built in the years after the Second World War.<ref name="svgeschedenis">{{Cite web |title=Stadsdeel Slotervaart – Geschiedenis |url=http://www.slotervaart.amsterdam.nl/stadsdeel_in_beeld/geschiedenis |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080503180139/http://www.slotervaart.amsterdam.nl/stadsdeel_in_beeld/geschiedenis |archive-date=3 May 2008 |access-date=22 May 2008 |publisher=Municipality Amsterdam |language=nl}}</ref> These suburbs contained many public parks and wide-open spaces, and the new buildings provided improved housing conditions with larger and brighter rooms, gardens, and balconies. Because of the war and other events of the 20th century, almost the entire city centre had fallen into disrepair. As society was changing,{{clarify|date=January 2017}} politicians and other influential figures made plans to redesign large parts of it. There was an increasing demand for office buildings, and also for new roads, as the automobile became available to most people.<ref name="stadsherstel">{{Cite web |title=Stadsherstel Missie/Historie |url=http://www.stadsherstelamsterdam.nl/ |access-date=22 May 2008 |language=nl}}</ref> A [[Amsterdam Metro|metro]] started operating in 1977 between the new suburb of [[Bijlmermeer]] in the city's [[Amsterdam-Zuidoost|Zuidoost]] (southeast) exclave and the centre of Amsterdam. Further plans were to build a new highway above the metro to connect [[Amsterdam Centraal station|Amsterdam Centraal]] and the city centre with other parts of the city.

The required large-scale demolitions began in Amsterdam's former Jewish neighborhood. Smaller streets, such as the Jodenbreestraat and Weesperstraat, were widened and almost all houses and buildings were demolished. At the peak of the demolition, the ''Nieuwmarktrellen'' ([[Nieuwmarkt riots]]) broke out;<ref name="metrostad">{{Cite web |title=Typisch Metrostad |url=http://amsterdam.nl/?ActItmIdt=101459 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610023117/http://amsterdam.nl/?ActItmIdt=101459 |archive-date=10 June 2008 |access-date=22 May 2008 |publisher=Municipality Amsterdam |language=nl}}</ref> the rioters expressed their fury about the demolition caused by the restructuring of the city.

As a result, the demolition was stopped and the highway into the city's centre was never fully built; only the metro was completed. Only a few streets remained widened. The new city hall was built on the almost completely demolished Waterlooplein. Meanwhile, large private organizations, such as ''Stadsherstel Amsterdam'', were founded to restore the entire city centre. Although the success of this struggle is visible today, efforts for further restoration are still ongoing.<ref name="stadsherstel" /> The entire city centre has reattained its former splendour and, as a whole, is now a [[protected area]]. Many of its buildings have become monuments, and in July 2010 the [[Grachtengordel (Amsterdam)|Grachtengordel]] (the three concentric canals: Herengracht, Keizersgracht, and Prinsengracht) was added to the [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage List]].<ref name="unesco">{{Cite web |title=Grachtengordel Amsterdam Werelderfgoed |url=https://www.amsterdam.nl/kunst-cultuur/grachtengordel/ |access-date=5 August 2015 |publisher=Gemeente Amsterdam |language=nl}}</ref>

[[File:Amsterdam Canal Tour.jpg|thumb|left|The 17th-century [[Canals of Amsterdam]] were listed as [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]s in 2010,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Seventeenth-century canal ring area of Amsterdam inside the Singelgracht – UNESCO World Heritage Centre |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1349 |access-date=31 January 2012 |publisher=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> contributing to Amsterdam's fame as the "[[Venice of the North]]".<ref name="Venice1">{{Cite web |title=Amsterdamhotspots.nl |url=http://www.amsterdamhotspots.nl/architecture.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070404161938/http://www.amsterdamhotspots.nl/architecture.html |archive-date=4 April 2007 |access-date=19 April 2007}}</ref><ref name="Venice3">{{Cite web |title=World Executive City Guides – Amsterdam |url=http://www.worldexecutive.com/cityguides/amsterdam/ |access-date=19 April 2007}}</ref> Along with [[De Wallen]], the canals are the focal point for tourists in the city.]]
In the 21st century, the Amsterdam city centre has attracted large numbers of tourists: between 2012 and 2015, the annual number of visitors rose from 10 to 17&nbsp;million. Real estate prices have surged, and local shops are making way for tourist-oriented ones, making the centre unaffordable for the city's inhabitants.<ref>{{Cite news |date=27 July 2016 |title=Amsterdam als koelkastmagneetje |trans-title=Amsterdam as a fridge magnet |work=[[De Groene Amsterdammer]] |url=https://www.groene.nl/artikel/amsterdam-als-koelkastmagneetje}}</ref> These developments have evoked comparisons with [[Venice (Italy)|Venice]], a city thought to be overwhelmed by the tourist influx.<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 January 2016 |title=Winkelomzet in Amsterdamse binnenstad explodeerde in 2015 |work=Het Parool |url=http://www.parool.nl/parool/nl/30/ECONOMIE/article/detail/4233984/2016/01/28/Winkelomzet-in-Amsterdamse-binnenstad-explodeerde-in-2015.dhtml |url-status=dead |access-date=22 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203133439/http://www.parool.nl/parool/nl/30/ECONOMIE/article/detail/4233984/2016/01/28/Winkelomzet-in-Amsterdamse-binnenstad-explodeerde-in-2015.dhtml |archive-date=3 February 2016}}</ref>

Construction of a new metro line connecting the part of the city north of the [[IJ (Amsterdam)|IJ]] to its southern part was started in 2003. The project was controversial because its cost had exceeded its budget by a factor of three by 2008,<ref>{{Cite news |date=17 April 2008 |title=Geschiedenis van een debacle |work=Het Parool}}</ref> because of fears of damage to buildings in the centre, and because construction had to be halted and restarted multiple times.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Werk aan Amsterdamse Noord-Zuidlijn hervat |url=http://static.nos.nl/nosjournaal/artikelen/2009/8/19/190809_noordzuid_adam.html |access-date=22 June 2016 |website=NOS.nl}}</ref> The new metro line was completed in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bouw Noord/Zuidlijn is voltooid: metrostations en lijn klaar om proef te draaien |url=https://www.at5.nl/artikelen/177226/bouw-noordzuidlijn-is-voltooid-metrostations-en-lijn-klaar-om-proef-te-draaien |access-date=16 September 2018 |website=at5.nl}}</ref>

Since 2014, renewed focus has been given to urban regeneration and renewal, especially in areas directly bordering the city centre, such as [[Frederik Hendrikbuurt]]. This urban renewal and expansion of the traditional centre of the city—with the construction of artificial islands of the new eastern [[IJburg]] neighbourhood—is part of the Structural Vision Amsterdam 2040 initiative.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Plan Openbare Ruimte Frederik Hendrikbuurt |url=https://www.amsterdam.nl/publish/pages/285098/plan_openbare_ruimte_versie_4.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.amsterdam.nl/publish/pages/285098/plan_openbare_ruimte_versie_4.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live |access-date=26 September 2016 |language=nl}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Structural Vision Amsterdam 2040 |url=https://www.amsterdam.nl/wonen-leefomgeving/structuurvisie/structural-vision-am/ |access-date=26 September 2016 |language=nl}}</ref>