Editing Amitābha (section)

== Indian Mahayana sources ==
[[file:096-Amitabha-Dhyana-Mudra-Original.jpg|thumb|Amitabha statue in [[Borobudur]], [[Indonesia]]]]
[[file:Amitabha Triad Koryo.jpg|thumb|Korean Amitabha triad with Avalokiteśvara and Mahāsthāmaprāpta, the standard Amitabha triad according to the ''Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha.<ref name=":14">Katsumi Tanabe. [https://kanazawa-u.repo.nii.ac.jp/record/55361/files/H-I_2020-1-31.pdf Origin of the Amida Triad（阿弥陀三尊）in Gandhāra.] ヘレニズム〜イスラーム考古学研究 2020</ref>'' ]]
[[File:Ming era statue of Amitabha (阿彌陀佛 or 阿弥陀佛; Āmítuófó), one of the Five Tathagathas (五方佛 Wǔfāngfó) or Five Wisdom Buddhas (五智如来 Wǔzhì Rúlái) at Huayan Temple (华严寺), Shanxi, China.jpg|thumb|[[Ming dynasty]] (1368–1644) statue of Amituo as one of the [[Five Tathāgatas|Five Tathagathas]] at  [[Huayan Temple (Datong)|Huayan Temple]] in [[Datong]], [[Shanxi]], China|390x390px]]
=== In the ''Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtras'' ===
The most influential Amitābha focused Mahayana sutras are two sutras known by the Sanskrit title ''Sukhāvatī-vyūha'' (''Blissful Array,'' or the ''Array of [[Sukhavati|Sukhāvatī]]'')''.'' These two are the ''[[Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra|Short Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra]]'' (also known as the ''Amitābha Sutra'') and the [[The Amitāyus Sutra|''Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra'']] (also known as the ''Sutra of Infinite Life''). These sutras are the main Indian Mahayana sources for the teachings on Amitābha and his [[Pure Land|pure land]].<ref>Williams (2008), p. 239</ref> In these sutras, Amitābha is a transcendent and immortal Buddha who resides in a pure [[Pure Land|buddhafield]] that he created. This pure land is located billions of worlds away in the western direction and all beings can attain rebirth there, where they can swiftly become Buddhas themselves.<ref>Tanaka, Kenneth K. 1990. ''The Dawn of Chinese Pure Land Buddhist Doctrine: Ching-ying Hui-yüanʼs Commentary on the Visualization Sutra,'' p. 1. Albany: State University of New York Press.</ref>

According to the ''[[Infinite Life Sutra|Sūtra of Limitless Life]]'', eons ago, Amitābha was a bodhisattva monk named Dharmākara. In some versions of the [[sutra|sūtra]], Dharmākara is described as a former king who, having come into contact with Buddhist teachings through the buddha [[Lokeśvararāja]], renounced his throne and became a monk. For five eons ([[Kalpa (time)|kalpas]]), Dharmākara contemplated all the qualities of all the pure [[Pure Land|buddhafields]] (realms created a Buddha existing outside of [[Trailokya|ordinary reality]]) throughout the cosmos. He then resolved to become a Buddha and to create the best of all pure [[Pure Land|buddha-fields]] possessed of many supreme qualities.<ref name=":2">Williams (2008), pp. 240-242</ref><ref name=":19">Jones (2021), pp. 4-6.</ref>   

The sutra then recounts how Dharmākara made a series of [[Bodhisattva vow|bodhisattva vows]] (''praṇidhāna''), pledging that unless these vows were fulfilled, he would not attain Buddhahood. Different versions of the text list varying numbers of these vows (the most common sutra contains [[wikisource:Amitabha's forty-eight vows|forty eight vows]]), which serves as the foundation for Pure Land doctrine. These solemn resolutions set out the type of pure land Dharmākara aspired to create, the conditions under which beings might be born into that world, and what kind of beings they would be. After many eons of bodhisattva practice, Dharmākara became Amitābha Buddha (his enlightenment having occurred ten kalpas ago). Since he now presides over the Pure Land of Sukhāvatī ("Utmost Bliss") in the western direction, it is understood that his vows were indeed fulfilled.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":19" />    

Among these "[[Primal Vow|past vows]]", Dharmākara ensured that all beings born in his land would never fall into lower realms, and would possess golden divine bodies with many [[Iddhi|superpowers]]. He also vowed that they would be firmly established on the path to [[Buddhahood]] and could enjoy profound peace, happiness and an unlimited lifespan there. Amitābha’s name would be glorified by countless Buddhas, and those who sincerely place their trust in him and wish to be reborn in his Pure Land can attain birth there.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":19" /> 

The central aspect of these vows is the ones which discuss how to attain birth in the pure land. In Pure Land Buddhism, one of the most influential passages has been the eighteenth vow, which states:<blockquote>If, when I attain Buddhahood, sentient beings in the lands of the ten directions who sincerely and joyfully entrust themselves to me, desire to be born in my land, and think of me even ten times should not be born there, may I not attain perfect enlightenment. Excluded however, are those who commit the five grave offenses and abuse the Right Dharma.<ref>Jones (2021), p. 6.</ref></blockquote>This vow is also called the [[Original Vow|"original" or "fundamental" vow]] in East Asian Pure Land Buddhism, indicating its special status in this tradition. This vow, along with some other passages, made it possible to argue that all kinds of people would attain birth in the pure land, even very wicked, deluded and [[Kleshas (Buddhism)|defiled]] persons.<ref name=":22">Jones (2021), p. 7.</ref>  Barring that one did not commit the five grave acts (patricide, matricide, the murder of an [[arhat]], harming a Buddha, causing schism in the [[sangha]]), this scripture seems to open up the possibility of birth in the pure land to everyone who faithfully thinks of the Amitābha even just ten times.<ref name=":22" /> A modified version of this universalist teaching (which even removes the exclusion of beings who commit the five grave acts) would become a central doctrine of Pure Land Buddhism and remains part of its lasting appeal.<ref>Jones (2019)'','' p. 31. </ref> 

The sutra also explains how, at the moment of death, Amitābha, will appear to those who have aspired to be born in Sukhāvatī.<ref name=":2" /> Bodhisattvas who arrive in Sukhāvatī enter the state of [[Bodhisattva#Avaivartika (non-retrogression)|non-retrogression]] (from which there is no falling back into lower states of rebirth), and the state of "one more birth," meaning they require only one additional lifetime before attaining Buddhahood. Once in Sukhāvatī, all beings can also easily visit other pure lands to make offerings to innumerable Buddhas.<ref name=":2" /> In Sukhāvatī, beings are born asexually, appearing fully formed upon lotus flowers in Amitābha’s presence.<ref name=":2" /> Some lotuses remain closed, signifying individuals who still harbor doubts about Amitābha. Such beings remain enclosed for 500 years, experiencing their lotus as a palace, yet deprived of the Buddha’s presence. Eventually, as they dispel their doubts, they emerge from this period of purification and witness the splendor of Amitābha.<ref name=":2" />[[File:Chion-in - various - 20150621 - 05.jpg|thumb|The main Amitabha image at [[Chion-in]] temple, [[Kyoto]], Japan]]

Both versions of the ''Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra'' provide various descriptions which may have served as a guide for meditating on Amitābha within his Pure Land.<ref name=":2" /> According to the sutras, those aspiring to be reborn there should cultivate [[bodhicitta]], listen to Amitābha’s name, contemplate him, pray for rebirth in his land, and accumulate merit as a basis for their future birth.<ref name=":2" /> Given these conditions, rebirth in Sukhāvatī and eventual enlightenment are significantly more accessible than striving for Buddhahood under the harsh conditions of this world, which is Amitābha Buddha's ultimate intent for creating the pure land.<ref name=":2" /> This teaching about an easily accessible afterlife made Amitābha a popular Buddha in [[Gandhara]], from where it spread [[Central Asia]] and [[East Asian cultural sphere|East Asia]].  

Regarding the ''Smaller Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra'', this text primarily describes the various features of Sukhāvatī and further clarifies the methods of attaining rebirth there. It describes, for example, how the birds and trees of Sukhāvatī, themselves manifestations of Amitābha, continuously sing song of the Dharma. According to this sūtra, rebirth in Sukhāvatī is achieved by sincerely holding Amitābha’s name in mind with undistracted focus for one to seven days—an application of the ancient meditation known as ''[[buddhānusmṛti]]'' (recollection of the Buddha).<ref name=":2" />

==== The nature of Amitābha ====
[[File:水陆画宝宁寺 阿弥陀佛.jpg|thumb|[[Ming dynasty]] (1368–1644) [[Shuilu ritual paintings|''Shuilu'' ritual painting]] of Amituo from [[Baoning Temple (Shuozhou)|Baoning Temple]]<sup>[[:zh:宝宁寺_(朔州市)|[zh]]]</sup>,  [[Shanxi]], [[China]]]]

The [[The Amitāyus Sutra|Larger ''Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra'']] describes the Buddha Amitābha as having a body that radiates limitless light throughout the ten directions. The sutra states:<blockquote>The majestic radiance of the Buddha of Immeasurable Life is exalted and supreme; the radiance of other Buddhas cannot compare with it. Some Buddhas’ light shines upon a hundred Buddha-lands, and other Buddhas’ light shines upon a thousand Buddha-lands. Briefly stated, the light of the Buddha of Immeasurable Life illuminates all the Buddha-lands.....Sentient beings who encounter this light have the three defilements swept away, and they become soft and gentle in body and mind. They leap and dance with joy, and the good mind arises in them. When those suffering pain and travail in the three evil realms see this light, they all find respite and become free of afflictions. After their lives have ended, they will all gain emancipation. The light of the Buddha of Immeasurable Life is resplendent and brilliantly illuminates the lands of the Buddhas throughout the ten quarters; there is no place where it is not heard. It is not I alone who praise this light now; all Buddhas, sravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas together praise it just as I do.<ref name=":23">{{Cite web |last=Jōdo Shinshū Translation Group |first= |date=2020-11-20 |title=The Sutra on the Buddha of Immeasurable Life - Part 1 |url=https://jodoshinshu.faith/the-sutra-on-the-buddha-of-immeasurable-life-part-1/ |access-date=2025-03-04 |website=jodoshinshu.faith |language=en-US}}</ref> </blockquote>In the Larger ''Sukhāvatīvyūha,'' Shakyamuni also describes the Buddha Amitābha's light as inconceivable and ultimate indescribable, saying that he "could never describe it completely", even if he spent eons trying.<ref name=":23" />  

Regarding the lifespan of Amitābha, the Larger ''Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra'' states that it is "everlasting and beyond reckoning", totally beyond any calculation or thought.<ref name=":23" />  

Both ''Sukhāvatīvyūha'' sūtras also proclaim Buddha Amitābha's special status, by stating that he is praised and revered by all the Buddhas of the ten quarters and that all Buddhas teach their retinues about birth in Amitābha's Pure Land.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jōdo Shinshū Translation Group |first= |date=2020-11-20 |title=The Sutra on the Buddha of Immeasurable Life - Part 2 |url=https://jodoshinshu.faith/the-sutra-on-the-buddha-of-immeasurable-life-part-2/ |access-date=2025-03-04 |website=jodoshinshu.faith |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jōdo Shinshū Translation Group |first= |date=2020-11-23 |title=The Sutra on Amida Buddha |url=https://jodoshinshu.faith/the-sutra-on-amida-buddha/ |access-date=2025-03-04 |website=jodoshinshu.faith |language=en-US}}</ref>  

===References in other sutras===
Amitābha is also mentioned in numerous other Buddhist sources. [[Kenneth K. Tanaka|Kenneth Tanaka]] notes that "Thirty one Sanskrit texts and over one hundred Chinese and Tibetan translations refer to Amitābha* and/or Sukhavati.*"<ref name="Tanaka">Tanaka, Kenneth K. 1990. ''The Dawn of Chinese Pure Land Buddhist Doctrine: Ching-ying Hui-yüanʼs Commentary on the Visualization Sutra,'' p. 12. Albany: State University of New York Press.</ref>[[File:方便法身尊影-Amida_Manifesting_in_the_Dharma-body_of_Expedient_Means_MET_18_146_1_O3_sf.jpg|thumb|"Amida Manifesting in the Dharma-body of [[Upaya|Expedient Means]]", Japanese painting, at the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art|Met]].]]The earliest Buddhist [[sutra]] mentioning Amitābha is the translation into Chinese of the ''[[Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra]]'' (般舟三昧經; ''Bozhōu Sānmèi Jīng'') by the [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] monk [[Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)|{{IAST|Lokakṣema}}]]. This text has been dated to between the 1st century BCE and 2nd century CE by modern buddhologists and may have been translated from the [[Gandhari language]] (a fragment of which was discovered in 2018).<ref>{{cite book |title=Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism |date=2013 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=9780691157863 |editor1-last=Buswell |editor1-first=Robert Jr |editor1-link=Robert Buswell Jr. |location=Princeton, NJ |page=674 |editor2-last=Lopez |editor2-first=Donald S. Jr. |editor2-link=Donald S. Lopez, Jr.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harrison |first1=Paul |last2=Lenz |first2=Timothy |last3=Salomon |first3=Richard |date=2018 |title=Fragments of a Gāndhārī Manuscript of the Pratyutpannabuddhasaṃmukhāvasthitasamādhisūtra |journal=Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies |volume=41 |pages=117–143 |doi=10.2143/JIABS.41.0.3285740}}</ref> Other important Mahayana texts which mention Amitabha and his pure land of [[Sukhavati]] include the ''[[Ajitasena Sutra]]'', the ''[[Lotus Sutra]]'', the ''[[Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra|Nirvana Sutra]]'', the ''[[Mahāmegha Sūtra|Mahāmegha Sutra]],'' and the ''[[Samadhiraja Sutra|Samādhirāja Sūtra]].<ref name=":0">Schopen, Gregory. "The Inscription on the Kuṣān Image of Amitābha and the Character of Early Mahāyāna in India". Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 10 (1987): 99–137</ref>''<ref>Gomez, Luis, trans. (1996), ''The Land of Bliss: The Paradise of the Buddha of Measureless Light: Sanskrit and Chinese Versions of the Sukhavativyuha Sutras'',  p. 127. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Gomez calls this edition a "more "free" translation" in the preface</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Great Cloud (1) / 84000 Reading Room |url=https://84000.co/translation/toh232 |access-date=2024-11-11 |website=84000 Translating The Words of The Buddha |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The King of Samādhis Sūtra / 84000 Reading Room |url=https://84000.co/translation/toh127 |access-date=2024-11-11 |website=84000 Translating The Words of The Buddha |language=en}}</ref> There are also several Indian [[Dharani|''Dhāraṇī sutras'']] (sutras focused on specific magical chants) which are focused on Amitābha including various editions of the ''[[Amitabha Pure Land Rebirth Dharani|Amitabha Pure Land Rebirth Dhāraṇī]],'' as well as the ''Sūtra of the Dhāraṇī of the King of the Sound of Amitābha’s Drum,'' the ''Anantamukhanirhāra-dhāraṇī'' and the ''Fundamental Dhāraṇī of Immeasurable Life Tathagata'' (T.930)''.''<ref>''[https://mbingenheimer.net/tools/bibls/shaku.2022.t370.pdf The Sūtra of the Dhāraṇī of the King of]'' ''[https://mbingenheimer.net/tools/bibls/shaku.2022.t370.pdf the Sound of Amitābha’s Drum.]'' Translator’s Name Unknown; Liang Dynasty (502–57). English Translation by Shaku Shingan.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Foard |first=James Harlan |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Pure_Land_Tradition/tztMqPBReAYC?hl=en&gbpv=1 |title=The Pure Land Tradition: History and Development |last2=Solomon |first2=Michael |last3=Payne |first3=Richard Karl |date=1996 |publisher=Jain Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-89581-092-2 |pages=36 |language=en}}</ref>

Jeff Wilson writes that over a fifth of the sutras in the [[Taishō Tripiṭaka]] reference Amitābha,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wilson |first1=Jeff |title=Pure Land Sūtras |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195393521/obo-9780195393521-0132.xml |website=Oxford Bibliographies Online |access-date=26 February 2024 |language=en}}</ref> but three sutras in particular have become seen as canonical in East Asian Buddhism: the two ''Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtras'' discussed above and the ''[[Amitāyus Contemplation Sūtra]].''<ref>{{Citation|translator-last1=Inagaki |translator-first1=Hisao |title=The Three Pure Land Sutras |date=2003 |publisher=Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research |location=Berkeley |url=http://www.bdk.or.jp/pdf/bdk/digitaldl/dBET_ThreePureLandSutras_2003.pdf |isbn=1-886439-18-4 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512124959/http://www.bdk.or.jp/pdf/bdk/digitaldl/dBET_ThreePureLandSutras_2003.pdf |archive-date=May 12, 2014 }}</ref> The [[Amitāyus Contemplation Sūtra|''Contemplation Sūtra'']] is believed to have been translated into Chinese by Kalayāśas in the early fifth century and belongs to [[Visualization sutras|a group of texts focused on the visualization of Buddhas]].<ref name=":3">Williams (2008), pp. 242-243</ref> Unlike other Pure Land sūtras, the ''Contemplation Sūtra'' emphasizes meditative practices to have a vision of Amitābha, including thirteen stages of visualization. These include meditating on the setting sun, pure water turning into beryl, and eventually visualizing the entire Pure Land with its jeweled pavilions, lotus throne, Amitāyus (Amitābha), and his attendant Bodhisattvas, Avalokiteśvara and Mahāsthāmaprāpta.<ref name=":3" />[[file:Welcoming descent of Amida Buddha and twenty-five bodhisattvas.jpg|thumb|A scroll depicting the "Welcoming Descent" (Ch: laiying, Jp: raigo) of Amida Buddha and Twenty-five Bodhisattvas coming to guide a dying person to the pure land, 1668, Japan, Edo period. [[Metropolitan Museum of Art|MET]].]]The sūtra also explains that even those guilty of the five gravest transgressions may, just before death, encounter a virtuous teacher who instructs them in the Buddha’s Dharma. If such a person sincerely calls upon Amitāyus’ name ten times, their accumulated negative karma will be purified, and they will be reborn within a lotus bud in Sukhāvatī. After twelve eons, the lotus will bloom, and the individual will behold Avalokiteśvara and Mahāsthāmaprāpta, who will preach the Dharma and inspire them to cultivate bodhicitta.<ref name=":3" /> This sūtra became a cornerstone of the Pure Land tradition, as it offers hope to all people. Its emphasis on salvation through Amitābha’s boundless compassion extends even to the most evil individuals.<ref name=":3" /> 

=== In Mahayana treatises ===
Some Mahāyāna [[Shastra|treatises]] mention Amitābha. The ''[[Dasabhumika-vibhāsā|Dasabhumikavibhāsā]]'' (十住毘婆沙論, T.1521), which is traditionally ascribed to [[Nagarjuna|Nāgārjuna]] and survives only in a Chinese translation by [[Kumārajīva]]  (344-413), teaches the "easy" practice of maintaining constant mindfulness of Amitābha Buddha as a way to attain birth in the pure land.<ref>Williams (2008)'','' p. 244. </ref><ref name="Jones 2019b2">Jones 2019, pp. 25, 37.</ref> The authorship of this text has been disputed by some scholars, including Akira Hirakawa.<ref>Williams Tribe and Wynne (2002). ''Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition'', p. 270. Routledge.</ref><ref>Ruegg, David Seyfort, ''<nowiki>''The Literature of the Madhyamaka School of Philosophy in India,''</nowiki>'' Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1981, p. 29.</ref> 

[[Vasubandhu]] ([[Floruit|fl.]] 4th to 5th century CE) is traditionally credited with composing the ''Discourse on the Pure Land'' (T.1524), a commentary on the ''Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra,'' which only survives in Chinese translation by the Indian translator [[Bodhiruci]] (6th century). This work outlines a five-part practice that may have functioned as a visualization meditation.<ref name="Jones 2019b">Jones 2019, p. 37.</ref> Amitābha and his pure are also briefly discussed by Vasubandhu's brother [[Asanga]] in his ''[[Mahāyānasaṃgraha]].''<ref>Williams (2008), p. 244</ref>

The author of the ''[[Ratnagotravibhāga]]'' concludes the text with the following dedication to Amitāyus: "By the merit I have acquired through [writing] this [treatise], may all living beings come to perceive the Lord Amitāyus* endowed with infinite light."<ref name="Tanaka" />

=== History and archeology ===
[[file:Buddha Chandigarh Museum.jpg|thumb|280px|Gandharan sculpture depicting “Amitabha preaching in Sukhavati,” 2nd century CE, from the site of [[Muhammad Nari]] (present-day northwestern [[Pakistan]]). [[Government Museum and Art Gallery, Chandigarh]].]]
According to [[Kenneth K. Tanaka|Kenneth Tanaka]], Amitābha Buddha emerged as a central figure in the [[Gandharan Buddhism]] of the first century CE.<ref name=":11">Tanaka (1990''),'' pp. 3-4. </ref><ref name=":13">Marchman, Kendall R. ''Huaigan and the Growth of Pure Land Buddhism During the Tang Era'', pp. 39-44. Phd Diss. 2015.</ref> Numerous Amitābha [[Buddhist art|Buddha images]] have been discovered in the Greater [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]] region (in modern [[Pakistan]] and [[Afghanistan]]) from about the first century CE onwards during the Kushan era (30–375 CE). This, along with evidence which suggests that the two main Pure Land sutras were written in [[Gandhari language|the Gandhari language]], indicates that Amitābha rose to prominence in [[Gandharan Buddhism]] (and in the greater [[Kushan Empire|Kushana Empire]]) during the first century CE.<ref>{{cite web |title=Gandharan Sculptural Style: The Buddha Image |url=http://huntingtonarchive.osu.edu/studypages/internal/dl/SouthAsia/Buddhist/pgs/u5/DL0230m.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141218045231/http://huntingtonarchive.osu.edu/studypages/internal/dl/SouthAsia/Buddhist/pgs/u5/DL0230m.htm |archive-date=2014-12-18 |access-date=2013-05-12}}</ref><ref name=":11" />

Regarding the main historical source of the figure of Amitābha, some Western scholars have proposed possible influences on Buddhism from [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] deities ([[Ahura Mazda]] or [[Zurvanism|Zurvan]]) or from [[Historical Vedic religion|Brahmanical]] deities or concepts (such as the sun god [[Surya]] or the immortality nectar [[Amrita|Amritā]]).<ref name=":13" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Foard |first=James Harlan |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Pure_Land_Tradition/tztMqPBReAYC?hl=en&gbpv=0 |title=The Pure Land Tradition: History and Development |last2=Solomon |first2=Michael |last3=Payne |first3=Richard Karl |date=1996 |publisher=Jain Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-89581-092-2 |pages=13-14 |language=en}}</ref> Japanese scholars like Kōtatsu Fujita meanwhile tend to place the origin of Amitābha Buddha squarely within Buddhist tradition.<ref name=":12">Tanaka (1990''),'' p. 8.</ref><ref name=":13" />[[file:Chinesischer Maler des 8. Jahrhunderts 001.jpg|thumb|330x330px|A painting of Amitabha discovered at [[Dunhuang]]]]Other scholars, especially Japanese authors, cite various passages from [[Early Buddhist texts|earlier Buddhist sources]] which mention [[The Buddha|Shakyamuni]] Buddha radiating light rays and which state that his lifespan is immeasurable. Such ideas seem to have been most common in the early Buddhist [[Mahāsāṃghika]] tradition, who promoted the [[Docetism|docetic]] idea that the Buddha was ultimately a transcendent (lokottara) being who nevertheless manifested a magical body on earth.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":16">Pas, Julian F. (1995). ''Visions of Sukhavati: Shan-Tao's Commentary on the Kuan Wu-liang- Shou-Fo Ching'', pp. 14-16. Albany, State University of New York Press,  {{ISBN|0-7914-2520-7}}</ref> One of their sutras is cited by [[Vasumitra (Buddhism)|Vasumitra]] (in a passage that was translated three times by different Chinese figures) as stating that "the form body (''rupakaya''), supernatural power (''prabhāva'') and lifespan (''ayus'') of a Buddha is unlimited (''ananta'')."<ref name=":12" /><ref>Andre Bareau, ''Les sectes bouddhiques du Petit Véhicule'' (Ecole Fransaise d'Extreme-Orient, 1955), Chapitre I 'Les Mahasanghika', pp. 55-74.</ref><ref name=":62">Willemen, Charles; Tsukamoto Keisho (2004). ''[https://www.bdkamerica.org/product/the-treatise-on-the-elucidation-of-the-knowable-and-the-cycle-of-the-formation-of-the-schismatic-doctrines/ Treatise on the Elucidation of the Knowable, The Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines]'', pp. 97-101. Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research.</ref><ref name=":16" /> Julian Pas also notes that, in the version translated by [[Kumārajīva]], Vasumitra's passage speaks of the limitless light of the Buddha ("kuan-ming-wu-liang"), which could be a translation of ''abha amita.<ref name=":16" />''  

Another Mahāsāṃghika ([[Lokottaravāda]]) source, the ''[[Mahāvastu]],'' states: "the purity of the Buddha is so great that the worship of the Exalted One is sufficient for the attainment of [[Nirvana (Buddhism)|Nirvāna]]" and "from the Buddha’s smile, there radiate beams which illuminate all buddhafields."<ref name=":17" /> Pas sees the Mahāsāṃghika as promoting a kind of Buddhist [[bhakti]] (devotional) movement. These connections with early [[Mahāsāṃghika]] doctrines indicate the possibility that Amitābha may have initially signified the limitless lifespan and radiance of the Buddha, pointing to the transcendent dimensions of the historical Buddha Shakyamuni.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13" /> Since the Mahāsāṃghika school was also active in the northwest of India and as far north as [[Bamyan|Bamiyan]] ([[Afghanistan]]), Pas argues that they are a likely source for the ideas that influenced the rise of the devotional [[Cult (religious practice)|cultus]] of Amitābha in northwest India, Gandhara, and [[Bactria]].<ref name=":17">Pas, Julian F. (1995). ''Visions of Sukhavati: Shan-Tao's Commentary on the Kuan Wu-liang- Shou-Fo Ching'', pp. 26-30. Albany, State University of New York Press,  {{ISBN|0-7914-2520-7}}</ref>   

{{multiple image
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| header            = Earliest "Amitābha" inscription
| image1            = Amitabha Buddha inscription in the year 26 of Huvishka.jpg
| image2            = Amitabha Buddha inscription in the year 26 of Huvishka Inscription Buddhasya Amitabhasya.jpg
| footer_align      = center
| footer            = Inscribed pedestal with the first known occurrence of the name of "Amitābha Buddha" in "the year 26 of 
[[Huvishka]]" (153 CE, first year of Huvishka)<ref name="MMR">{{cite book |last1=Rhie |first1=Marylin M. |title=Early Buddhist Art of China and Central Asia, Volume 3: The Western Ch'in in Kansu in the Sixteen Kingdoms Period and Inter-relationships with the Buddhist Art of Gandh?ra |date=2010 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-18400-8 |page=xxxvii, Fig 6.17a |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ivE2mpfbNR0C&pg=PR37 |language=en}}</ref> In [[Brahmi script]] in the inscription:<br><sub>[[File:Gupta allahabad bu.jpg|12px]]</sub>[[File:Gupta ashoka ddh.jpg|10px]]<sub>[[File:Gupta ashoka sya.svg|19px]]</sub>  <sub>[[File:Gupta ashoka a.svg|19px]]</sub>[[File:Gupta ashoka mi.jpg|12px]] [[File:Gupta ashoka t.svg|12px]] [[File:Gupta allahabad bh.svg|12px]]<sub>[[File:Gupta ashoka sya.svg|19px]]</sub><br>"''[[wikt:𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥𑀲𑁆𑀬|𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥𑀲𑁆𑀬]] [[wikt:𑀅𑀫𑀺𑀢𑀸𑀪𑀲𑁆𑀬|𑀅𑀫𑀺𑀢𑀸𑀪𑀲𑁆𑀬]]''"<br>"''Bu-ddha-sya A-mi-tā-bha-sya''"<br>"Of the Buddha Amitabha"<ref name="GS99">{{cite journal |last1=Schopen |first1=Gregory |title=The Inscription on the Kuṣān Image of Amitābha and the Charakter of the Early Mahāyāna in India |journal=The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies |date=1987 |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=99–138 |url=http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Articles/The-Inscription-on-the-Kusan-Image-of-Amitabha-and-and-the-Character-of-Early-Mahayana-in-India_Schopen.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207114137/http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Articles/The-Inscription-on-the-Kusan-Image-of-Amitabha-and-and-the-Character-of-Early-Mahayana-in-India_Schopen.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 7, 2019}}</ref><br>[[Art of Mathura]], [[Mathura Museum]]
}}

The first known [[Epigraphy|epigraphic]] evidence for Amitābha is the bottom part of a statue found in Govindnagar, [[Pakistan]] and now located at [[Government Museum, Mathura]]. The statue is dated to "the 26th year of the reign of [[Huvishka|{{IAST|Huviṣka}}]]" i.e., 104 CE.<ref name=":0" /> It is a work of [[Kushan art]], made during the [[Kushan Empire]] (30–375 CE), and was dedicated to "Amitābha Buddha" by a family of merchants.<ref>{{cite web |title=On the origins of Mahayana Buddhism |url=http://old.ykbi.edu.tw/htm/ykbi16/ykbi16_1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130612150915/http://old.ykbi.edu.tw/htm/ykbi16/ykbi16_1.pdf |archive-date=2013-06-12 |access-date=2013-06-14}}</ref><ref name="MMR" /><ref name="GS99" />  

[[Gregory Schopen]] translates the inscription as follows:<ref name=":0" /> <blockquote>The 26th year of the Great King Huveṣka, the 2nd month, the 26th day. On this day by Nāgarakṣita, the (father) of the trader (Sax-caka), the grandson of the merchant Balakatta, the (son of Buddhapila), an image of the Blessed One, the Buddha Amitābha was set up for the worship of all buddhas. Through this root of merit (may) all living things (obtain) the unexcelled knowledge of a buddha.<ref name=":0" />  </blockquote>Another early epigraphic mention of Amitabha (c. 610 CE) is found in [[Lalitpur, Nepal|Patan (Lalitpur)]]. It is a verse which states: "I praise Amitabha, the best, dispeller of illusion by the light of great [[Prajñā (Buddhism)|prajña]]. The light, victor who lives in [[Sukhavati]] with [[Avalokiteśvara|Lokesvara]], the destroyer of the fear arising in the world, bearer of the lotus, and [[Mahasthamaprapta]], the affectionate-hearted one."<ref>Lewis, T. T. (1996). [https://college.holycross.edu/faculty/tlewis/PDFs/Sukhavati_Traditions_in_Newar_Buddhism.pdf Sukhavati Traditions in Newar Buddhism.] South Asia Research, 16(1), 1-30. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/026272809601600101</nowiki></ref> One of the last Indian sculptures of Amitābha can be found in the trademark black stone of the [[Pala Empire]] (c. 750–1161 CE), which was the last Buddhist empire of India.

The appearance of sculptural remains dating to the end of the second century suggests that Amitābha was becoming popular in the first and second centuries CE in Gandhara and Central Asia. Apart from the Gandhara region, not much evidence has been found for extensive Amitabha worship in the rest of the [[Indian subcontinent]] before the 8th century.<ref name=":11" /> During the 8th century, the Chinese monk [[Cimin Huiri]] visited India and learned about Pure Land Amitabha devotion there.<ref name=":11" /> 

From its initial home in Greater Gandhāra, Amitābha worship and its images quickly [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|spread via the Silk road]] to [[Central Asia|Central Asian]] kingdoms like [[Kingdom of Khotan|Khotan]], and then to [[China]] as well as Southeast Asian regions like [[Indonesia]]. The earliest dated Amitābha image in China is from the [[Longmen Grottoes]] and is dated to 519 CE.<ref>Williams (2008)'','' p. 247.</ref> During the [[Sui dynasty|Sui Dynasty]] (581–618) and the succeding [[Tang dynasty]], China saw a growth in the creation of Amitabha images and paintings. Some exemplary Amitabha art from this period can be found in [[Dunhuang]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tucker |first=Jonathan |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Silk_Road_China_and_the_Karakorum_Hi/DaWmDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=amitabha+dunhuang&pg=PT93&printsec=frontcover |title=The Silk Road - China and the Karakorum Highway: A Travel Companion |date=2015-03-12 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-0-85773-933-9 |pages=chapter 1 |language=en}}</ref>