Editing Amerigo Vespucci (section)

== Biography ==
[[File:Montefioralle - narrow street (2661134628).jpg|thumb|[[Montefioralle]], a ''[[frazione]]'' of the ''[[comune]]'' of [[Greve in Chianti]], Italy. Montefioralle was the home of the Vespucci family.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Borgo di Montefioralle {{!}} Comune di Greve in Chianti |url=https://www.comune.greve-in-chianti.fi.it/vivere-il-comune/luoghi/borgo-di-montefioralle |access-date=2024-08-24 |website=www.comune.greve-in-chianti.fi.it|language=it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Abita e muore nel castello di Montefioralle l'ultimo discendente dei Vespucci |url=http://met.provincia.fi.it/news.aspx?n=211500 |access-date=2024-08-24 |website=www.met.provincia.fi.it|language=it}}</ref><ref name="italiauomoambiente">{{Cite web |title=l Chianti tra natura e storia: Montefioralle|url=https://www.italiauomoambiente.it/?p=479213 |access-date=2024-08-24 |website=www.italiauomoambiente.it|language=it}}</ref>]]
[[File:Casa Vespucci.jpg|thumb|Vespucci's birthplace in [[Peretola]], [[Florence]], Italy]]

Vespucci was born on 9 March 1454 in [[Republic of Florence|Florence]], a wealthy Italian city-state and a center of Renaissance art and learning,{{sfn|Fernández-Armesto|2007|p=4}} in the suburb of [[Peretola]].<ref name="italiauomoambiente"/>

===Family and education===
[[File:Coa fam ITA Vespucci HrM.svg|thumb|left|upright=.5|Coats of arms of the House of Vespucci]]
[[File:Domenico ghirlandaio, amerigo vespucci, ognissanti, Firenze.jpg|thumb|upright=.6|Portrait of a young member of the Vespucci family, identified as Amerigo by [[Giorgio Vasari]]{{sfn|Fernández-Armesto|2007|p=17}}]]
Amerigo Vespucci was the third son of Nastagio Vespucci, a Florentine [[notary]] for the Money-Changers Guild, and Lisa di Giovanni Mini.<ref>{{cite web |last1= Almagià|first1=Roberto|title=Amerigo Vespucci |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Amerigo-Vespucci |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |date=8 December 2022 |access-date=29 December 2022 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Formisano|1992|pp=xix–xxvi}} The family resided in the District of Santa Lucia d'Ognissanti along with other families of the Vespucci clan. Earlier generations of Vespucci had funded a family chapel in the Ognissanti church, and the nearby Hospital of San Giovanni di Dio was founded by Simone di Piero Vespucci in 1380. Vespucci's immediate family was not especially prosperous but they were politically well-connected. Amerigo's grandfather, also named Amerigo Vespucci, served a total of 36 years as the chancellor of the Florentine government, known as the ''[[Signoria of Florence|Signoria]]''; and Nastagio also served in the ''Signoria'' and in other guild offices.{{sfn|Formisano|1992|pp=xix–xxvi}}{{sfn|Pohl|1944}} More importantly, the Vespuccis had good relations with [[Lorenzo de' Medici]], the powerful [[de facto]] ruler of Florence.{{sfn|Fernández-Armesto|2007|p=14}}

Amerigo's two older brothers, Antonio and Girolamo, were sent to the [[University of Pisa]] for their education; Antonio followed his father to become a notary, while Girolamo entered the Church and joined the [[Knights Hospitaller]] in Rhodes.{{sfn|Pohl|1944|p=18}} Amerigo's career path seemed less certain; instead of following his brothers to the university, he remained in Florence and was tutored by his uncle, Giorgio Antonio Vespucci, a [[Dominican Order|Dominican friar]] in [[San Marco, Florence|the monastery of San Marco]]. Fortunately for Amerigo, his uncle was one of the most celebrated humanist scholars in Florence at the time and provided him with a broad education in literature, philosophy, rhetoric, and Latin. He was also introduced to geography and astronomy, subjects that played an essential part in his career. Amerigo's later writings demonstrated a familiarity with the work of the classic Greek cosmographers, [[Ptolemy]] and [[Strabo]], and the more recent work of Florentine astronomer [[Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli]].{{sfn|Fernández-Armesto|2007|p=22}}

===Early career===
In 1478, Guido Antonio Vespucci, Amerigo's other uncle, led a Florentine diplomatic mission to Paris and invited his younger cousin, Amerigo Vespucci, to join him. Amerigo's role is not clear, but it was likely as an attache or private secretary. Along the way they had business in Bologna, Milan, and Lyon. Their objective in Paris was to obtain French support for Florence's war with Naples. [[Louis XI]] was noncommittal and the diplomatic mission returned to Florence in 1481 with little to show for their efforts.{{sfn|Fernández-Armesto|2007|pages=21–24}}{{sfn|Arciniegas|1955}}

After his return from Paris, Amerigo worked for a time with his father and continued his studies in science.{{sfn|Pohl|1944}}{{page needed|date=March 2022}} In 1482, when his father died, Amerigo went to work for [[Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici]], head of a junior branch of the Medici family. Although Amerigo was twelve years older, they had been schoolmates under the tutelage of Giorgio Antonio Vespucci. Amerigo served first as a household manager and then gradually took on increasing responsibilities, handling various business dealings for the family both at home and abroad.{{sfn|Fernández-Armesto|2007|pages=34–36}} Meanwhile, he continued to show an interest in geography, at one point buying an expensive map made by the master cartographer [[Gabriel de Vallseca]].{{sfn|Fernández-Armesto|2007|p=87}}{{sfn|Arciniegas|1955}}

===Seville===
In 1488, Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco became dissatisfied with his Seville business agent, Tomasso Capponi. He dispatched Vespucci to investigate the situation and provide an assessment of a suggested replacement, Florentine merchant Gianotto Berardi. Vespucci's findings have been lost but Capponi returned to Florence around this time and Berardi took over the Medici business in Seville.{{sfn|Arciniegas|1955}}{{page needed|date=March 2022}} In addition to managing Medici's trade in Seville, Berardi had his own business in African slavery and [[ship chandler]]y.{{sfn|Fernández-Armesto|2007|pp=52–55}}

By 1492, Vespucci had settled permanently in Seville. His motivations for leaving Florence are unclear; he continued to transact some business on behalf of his Medici patrons but more and more he became involved with Berardi's other activities, most notably his support of [[Christopher Columbus]]'s voyages. Berardi invested half a million ''maravedis'' in Columbus's first voyage, and he won a potentially lucrative contract to provision Columbus's large second fleet. However, profits proved to be elusive. In 1495, Berardi signed a contract with the crown to send 12 resupply ships to Hispaniola but then died unexpectedly in December without completing the terms of the contract.{{sfn|Fernández-Armesto|2007|pp=47–57}}{{sfn|Brinkbaumer|Hoges|2004|pp=104–109}}

Vespucci was the executor of Berardi's will, collecting debts and paying outstanding obligations for the firm. Afterwards he was left owing 140,000 ''maravedis''. He continued to provision ships bound for the West Indies, but his opportunities were diminishing; Columbus's expeditions were not providing the hoped-for profits, and his patron, Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco Medici, was using other Florentine agents for his business in Seville.{{sfn|Fernández-Armesto|2007|pp=56–58}}{{sfn|Markham|1894|loc="Introduction"}}

Sometime after he settled in Seville, Vespucci married a Spanish woman, Maria Cerezo. Very little is known about her; Vespucci's will refers to her as the daughter of celebrated military leader [[Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba]]. Historian Fernández-Armesto speculates that she may have been Gonzalo's illegitimate offspring and a connection that would have been very useful to Vespucci. She was an active participant in his business and held power of attorney for Vespucci when he was away.{{sfn|Fernández-Armesto|2007|pp=51–52}}

===Voyages and alleged voyages===
[[File:Vespucci arrives in New World.jpg|thumb|alt=Vespucci meets nude Native Americans|Depiction of Vespucci's first encounter with [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]], alleged to have occurred in 1497 ([[Theodor de Bry|De Bry]] engraving, {{ca|1592}})]]

The evidence for Vespucci's voyages of exploration consists almost entirely of a handful of letters written by him or attributed to him.{{sfn|Diffie|Winius|1977|pp=456–457}} Historians have differed sharply on the authorship, accuracy and veracity of these documents. Consequently, opinions also vary widely regarding the number of voyages undertaken, their routes, and Vespucci's roles and accomplishments.{{sfn|Diffie|Winius|1977|pp=458–459}} Starting in the late 1490s Vespucci participated in two voyages to the New World that are relatively well-documented in the historical record. Two others have been alleged but the evidence is more problematic. Traditionally, Vespucci's voyages are referred to as the "first" through "fourth", even by historians who dismiss one or more of the trips.

====Alleged voyage of 1497{{ndash}}1498====

A letter, addressed to Florentine official [[Piero Soderini]], dated 1504 and published the following year,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Almagià |first1=Roberto |title=Amerigo Vespucci |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Amerigo-Vespucci |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=21 May 2021}}</ref> purports to be an account by Vespucci of a voyage to the New World, departing from Spain on 10 May 1497, and returning on 15 October 1498. This is perhaps the most controversial of Vespucci's voyages, as this letter is the only known record of its occurrence, and many historians doubt that it took place as described. Some question the authorship and accuracy of the letter and consider it to be a forgery.{{sfn|Fernández-Armesto|2007|pp=123–130}} Others point to the inconsistencies in the narrative of the voyage, particularly the alleged course, starting near Honduras and proceeding northwest for 870 leagues (about {{cvt|3190|mi|-1|disp=or|order=flip}})—a course that would have taken them across Mexico to the Pacific Ocean.{{sfn|Morison|1974|p=308}}

Certain earlier historians, including contemporary [[Bartolomé de las Casas]], suspected that Vespucci incorporated observations from a later voyage into a fictitious account of this supposed first one, so as to gain primacy over Columbus and position himself as the first European explorer to encounter the mainland.{{sfn|Morison|1974|p=307}}<ref name="Davies">{{cite journal |last1=Davies |first1=A |title=The 'First' Voyage of Amerigo Vespucci in 1497–8 |journal=The Geographical Journal |date=1952 |volume=118 |issue=3 |pages=331–337 |doi=10.2307/1790319|jstor=1790319 }}</ref> Others, including scholar Alberto Magnaghi, have suggested that the Soderini letter was not written by Vespucci at all, but rather by an unknown author who had access to the navigator's private letters to Lorenzo de' Medici about his 1499 and 1501 expeditions to the Americas,<ref name="Davies"/> which make no mention of a 1497 voyage. The Soderini letter is one of two attributed to Vespucci that were edited and widely circulated during his lifetime.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lehmann |first1=Martin |title=Amerigo Vespucci and His Alleged Awareness of America as a Separate Land Mass |journal=Imago Mundi |date=2013 |volume=65 |issue=1 |page=17 |doi=10.1080/03085694.2013.731201 |s2cid=129472491 |access-date=21 May 2021 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03085694.2013.731201}}</ref>

====Voyage of 1499{{ndash}}1500====
[[File:Vespucci's second voyage, from Letter to Soderini.jpg|thumb|left|Vespucci's second voyage depicted in the first known edition of his letter to [[Piero Soderini]], published by Pietro Pacini in Florence {{ca|1505}}]]

In 1499, Vespucci joined an expedition licensed by Spain and led by [[Alonso de Ojeda]] as fleet commander and [[Juan de la Cosa]] as chief navigator. Their intention was to explore the coast of a new landmass found by Columbus on his third voyage and in particular investigate a rich source of pearls that Columbus had reported. Vespucci and his backers financed two of the four ships in the small fleet.{{sfn|Vigneras|1976|pp=47–63}} His role on the voyage is not clear. Writing later about his experience, Vespucci gave the impression that he had a leadership role, but that is unlikely, due to his inexperience. Instead, he may have served as a commercial representative on behalf of the fleet's investors. Years later, Ojeda recalled that "Morigo Vespuche" was one of his pilots on the expedition.{{sfn|Fernández-Armesto|2007|pp=63–65}}

The vessels left Spain on 18 May 1499 and stopped first in the [[Canary Islands]] before reaching South America somewhere near present-day [[Suriname]] or [[French Guiana]]. From there the fleet split up: Ojeda proceeded northwest toward modern Venezuela with two ships, while the other pair headed south with Vespucci aboard. The only record of the southbound journey comes from Vespucci himself. He assumed they were on the coast of Asia and hoped by heading south they would, according to the Greek geographer [[Geography (Ptolemy)|Ptolemy]], round the unidentified "Cape of [[Cattigara]]" and reach the [[Indian Ocean]]. They passed two huge rivers (the [[Amazon River|Amazon]] and the [[Pará River|Para]]) which poured freshwater {{convert|25|mi}} out to sea. They continued south for another 40 leagues (about {{cvt|150|mi|-1|disp=or|order=flip}}) before encountering a very strong adverse current which they could not overcome. Forced to turn around, the ships headed north, retracing their course to the original landfall. From there Vespucci continued up the South American coast to the [[Gulf of Paria]] and along the shore of what is now Venezuela.{{sfn|Vigneras|1976|pp=47–52}} At some point they may have rejoined Ojeda but the evidence is unclear. In the late summer, they decided to head north for the Spanish colony at [[Hispaniola]] in the [[West Indies]] to resupply and repair their ships before heading home. After Hispaniola they made a brief slave raid in the [[Bahamas]], capturing 232 [[Lucayan people|Lucayans]], and then returned to Spain.{{sfn|Lester|2009|pp=314–316}}

====Voyage of 1501{{ndash}}1502====
[[File:Cannibalism in the New World, from Vespucci.jpg|thumb|alt=Natives cutting up a person, with body parts hanging|First known depiction of cannibalism in the New World. Engraving by Johann Froschauer for an edition of Vespucci's ''Mundus Novus'' published in Augsburg in 1505]]

In 1501, [[Manuel I of Portugal]] commissioned an expedition to investigate a landmass far to the west in the Atlantic Ocean encountered unexpectedly by a wayward  [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]] on his voyage around Africa to India. That land would eventually become present-day Brazil. The king wanted to know the extent of this new discovery and determine where it lay in relation to the line established by the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]]. Any land that lay to the east of the line could be claimed by Portugal. Vespucci's reputation as an explorer and presumed navigator had already reached Portugal, and he was hired by the king to serve as pilot under the command of [[Gonçalo Coelho]].{{sfn|Morison|1974|p=280}}

Coelho's fleet of three ships left Lisbon in May 1501. Before crossing the Atlantic they resupplied at [[Cap-Vert|Cape Verde]], where they encountered Cabral on his way home from his voyage to India. This was the same expedition that had found Brazil on its outward-bound journey the previous year. Coelho left Cape Verde in June, and from this point Vespucci's account is the only surviving record of their explorations. On 17 August 1501 the expedition reached Brazil at a latitude of about 6° south. Upon landing it encountered a hostile band of natives who killed and ate one of its crewmen. Sailing south along the coast they found friendlier natives and were able to engage in some minor trading. At 23° S they found a bay which they named Rio de Janeiro because it was 1 January 1502. On 13 February 1502, they left the coast to return home. Vespucci estimated their latitude at 32° S but experts now estimate they were closer to 25° S. Their homeward journey is unclear since Vespucci left a confusing record of astronomical observations and distances travelled.{{sfn|Morison|1974|pp=280–284}}

====Alleged voyage of 1503{{ndash}}1504====
In 1503, Vespucci may have participated in a second expedition for the Portuguese crown, again exploring the east coast of Brazil. There is evidence that a voyage was led by Coelho at about this time but no independent confirmation that Vespucci took part.{{sfn|Ray|2004|p=91}} The only source for this last voyage is the Soderini letter;{{sfn|Markham|1894|pp=52–56}} but several modern scholars dispute Vespucci's authorship of that letter and it is uncertain whether Vespucci undertook this trip. There are also difficulties with the reported dates and details in the account of this voyage.{{sfn|Fernández-Armesto|2007|pp=168–169}}

===Return to Seville===
[[File:Ognissanti, cappella vespucci 2, tomba amerigo vespucci.JPG|thumb|Tomb of the Vespucci family in [[Ognissanti, Florence]]]]
By early 1505, Vespucci was back in Seville. His reputation as an explorer and navigator continued to grow and his recent service in Portugal did not seem to damage his standing with King Ferdinand. On the contrary, the king was likely interested in learning about the possibility of a western passage to India. In February, he was summoned by the king to consult on matters of navigation. During the next few months he received payments from the crown for his services and in April he was declared by royal proclamation a citizen of Castile and León.{{sfn|Formisano|1992|pp=103–105}}{{sfn|Fernández-Armesto|2007|p=169}}

From 1505 until his death in 1512, Vespucci remained in service to the Spanish crown. He continued his work as a chandler, supplying ships bound for the Indies. He was also hired to captain a ship as part of a fleet bound for the "spice islands" but the planned voyage never took place. In March 1508, he was named chief pilot for the ''[[Casa de Contratación]]'' or House of Commerce which served as a central trading house for Spain's overseas possessions. He was paid an annual salary of 50,000 ''maravedis'' with an extra 25,000 for expenses. In his new role, Vespucci was responsible for ensuring that ships' pilots were adequately trained and licensed before sailing to the New World. He was also charged with compiling a "model map", the ''[[Padrón Real]]'', based on input from pilots who were obligated to share what they learned after each voyage.{{sfn|Fernández-Armesto|2007|pp=169, 175–177}}

Vespucci wrote his will in April 1511. He left most of his modest estate, including five household slaves, to his wife. His clothes, books, and navigational equipment were left to his nephew Giovanni Vespucci. He requested to be buried in a Franciscan habit in his wife's family tomb. Vespucci died on 22 February 1512.{{sfn|Fernández-Armesto|2007|pp=178–180}}

Upon his death, Vespucci's wife was awarded an annual pension of 10,000 ''maravedis'' to be deducted from the salary of the successor chief pilot.{{sfn|Arciniegas|1955|pp=283–284}} His nephew Giovanni was hired into the ''Casa de Contratación'' where he spent his subsequent years spying on behalf of the Florentine state.{{sfn|Fernández-Armesto|2007|p=179}}