Editing American cuisine (section)

==History==
===Native Americans origins: American cuisine before 1600===
{{see also|Native American cuisine}}
[[File:Growingfieldspanlg (cropped).jpeg|thumb|Diorama of [[Iroquois]] planting the "[[Three Sisters (agriculture)|Three Sister]]" crops; squash, maize and climbing beans]]
Native Americans utilized a number of cooking methods in early American cuisine that have been blended with the methods of early Europeans to form the basis of what is now American cuisine. Nearly all regions and subregions of the present-day cuisine have roots in the foodways of Native Americans, who lived in tribes numbering in the thousands. Prior to 1600, native peoples lived off the land in very diverse bioregions and had done so for thousands of years, often living a nomadic life where their diet changed with the season.

Many practiced a form of agriculture revolving around the [[Three Sisters (agriculture)|Three Sisters]], the rotation of [[bean]]s, [[maize]], and [[Cucurbita|squash]] as staples of their diet. In the East, this was documented as early as the 1620s in ''Of Plimoth Plantation,'' evidenced by the pages [[William Bradford (governor)|William Bradford]] wrote regarding [[Squanto]], who showed them the traditional regional method of burying a fish or eel in a mound with seeds for maize to improve the soil; this itself is also part of the widely practiced phenomenon of [[companion planting]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.motherearthnews.com/nature-and-environment/three-sisters-corn-beans-squash-zmaz01fmzsel|title=The Three Sisters: Corn, Beans and Squash|first=John|last=Vivian|website=Mother Earth News|date=February 2001|access-date=January 2, 2021|archive-date=January 17, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117095603/https://www.motherearthnews.com/nature-and-environment/three-sisters-corn-beans-squash-zmaz01fmzsel|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.njagsociety.org/uploads/1/7/0/5/17057112/the_three_sisters_lesson_plan_wbs.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.njagsociety.org/uploads/1/7/0/5/17057112/the_three_sisters_lesson_plan_wbs.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live|title= The Three Sisters lesson plan |website=njagsociety.org |access-date=January 2, 2021}}</ref>

[[Wild game]] was equally a staple of nearly every tribe: generally, deer, elk, and bison were staples, as were rabbits and hare. The [[Cherokee]] of the Southern Appalachians used blowguns made of an indigenous type of bamboo to hunt squirrels.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://visitcherokeenation.com/blog/cherokee-hunting|title=Cherokee Hunting|website=visitcherokeenation.com|date=January 31, 2024|access-date=January 2, 2021|archive-date=September 29, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230929001346/https://visitcherokeenation.com/blog/cherokee-hunting|url-status=live}}</ref>

Northern tribes like the [[Ojibwe]] of what is now the state of Michigan and the peoples of the [[Wabanaki Confederacy|Wabanaki]] of what is now the state of Maine would stalk and hunt moose, whereas their Southern counterparts, like the [[Choctaw]] or [[Catawba people|Catawba]], hunted [[Common snapping turtle|snapping turtles]] and other testudines,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Duncan|first=Chris|url=https://www.uwsp.edu/forestry/StuJournals/Documents/NA/cduncan.pdf |title=Agriculture, Forest Food and Fiber Use, and Burning Practices of the Choctaw Indians Pre-European Contact – Mid 1700's |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.uwsp.edu/forestry/StuJournals/Documents/NA/cduncan.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |website=uwsp.edu |access-date=May 23, 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.socialstudies.org/sites/default/files/publications/se/5706/570605.html|title=Southeastern Indians, Precontact to the Present: Introductory Essay|website=socialstudies.org|access-date=January 2, 2021|archive-date=May 4, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210504033826/http://www.socialstudies.org/sites/default/files/publications/se/5706/570605.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Virginia opossum|possums]],<ref>{{Cite web|last=Lange|first=Andrew|url=https://www.uwsp.edu/forestry/StuJournals/Documents/NA/alange.pdf |title=Mississippi Choctaw: Food and Fiber Pre 1830's |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.uwsp.edu/forestry/StuJournals/Documents/NA/alange.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |website=uwsp.edu |access-date=May 23, 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Park |first1=Sunmin |last2=Hongu |first2=Nobuko |last3=Daily |first3=James W. |title=Native American foods: History, culture, and influence on modern diets |journal=Journal of Ethnic Foods |date=September 2016 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=171–177 |doi=10.1016/j.jef.2016.08.001 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and young alligators<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nativeamericannetroots.net/diary/2140|title=Southeastern Indian Hunting &#124; Native American Netroots|access-date=January 2, 2021|archive-date=November 18, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118115025/http://nativeamericannetroots.net/diary/2140|url-status=live}}</ref> in the subtropical swamps of Louisiana and South Carolina.

Many tribes would preserve their meat in the form of [[pemmican]], needed on long journeys or to survive harsh winters.

====Fish and crustaceans====
[[File:Blue crab on market in Piraeus - Callinectes sapidus Rathbun 20020819-317.jpg|thumb|right|[[Callinectes sapidus|Blue crab]] was used on the eastern and southern coast of what is now the U.S. mainland.]]
As with the [[Game (hunting)|hunted game]], the [[biome]] in which one lived often dictated what was available to catch. For example, the [[Apache]] and [[Navajo]] peoples of the Southwest, whose territories each would have included swathes of [[New Mexico]] and [[Arizona]], generally do not eat fish because in both cultures it is taboo, as well as often inconvenient.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}} The Navajo believe that fish have a part in the story of creation,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://openamlitcwi.pressbooks.com/chapter/navajo-emergence-myth/|title=Navajo Diné Bahaneʼ|first=Joel|last=Gladd|date=September 1, 2019|via=openamlitcwi.pressbooks.com|access-date=January 2, 2021|archive-date=May 11, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511021559/https://openamlitcwi.pressbooks.com/chapter/navajo-emergence-myth/|url-status=dead}}</ref> the Apache were in general afraid of water since they associated it with thunder,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scalar.usc.edu/works/american-indian-film-archive/apache-cooking|title=American Indian Film Gallery: Apache Cooking|website=American Indian Film Gallery: Cultures of Apache tribes and Hopi tribes|access-date=January 2, 2021|archive-date=June 18, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230618110446/https://scalar.usc.edu/works/american-indian-film-archive/apache-cooking|url-status=live}}</ref> and the arid desert climate made fish a rarity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.navajotimes.com/entertainment/health/1010/100710fish.php|title=Fish taboo may be good for health – Navajo Times|website=navajotimes.com|access-date=January 2, 2021|archive-date=May 11, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511021600/https://www.navajotimes.com/entertainment/health/1010/100710fish.php|url-status=dead}}</ref>

However, in the culture of the [[Lenape]], the tribe that originally lived in [[New Jersey]], on the [[Delaware River]], and the area that now comprises [[New York City]], [[Fish as food|fish]] and [[shellfish]] were a staple in their diet and it was such a revered part of the culture that there is a documented and still-practiced harvest dance called the Fish Dance.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://delawaretribe.org/wp-content/uploads/Lenape-Dances.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://delawaretribe.org/wp-content/uploads/Lenape-Dances.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live|title=LENAPE DANCES |website=delawaretribe.org|access-date=January 2, 2021}}</ref> Originally it would have been done to celebrate bringing in fish from places like the [[Delaware River|Delaware]] or [[Raritan River]] or the estuary around Manhattan Island and the completion of smoking them as a source of food for the winter ahead.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Carney|first=Leo H.|date=November 22, 1981|title=How the Lenapes Celebrated|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1981/11/22/nyregion/how-the-lenapes-celebrated.html|access-date=January 2, 2021|archive-date=August 16, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816012322/https://www.nytimes.com/1981/11/22/nyregion/how-the-lenapes-celebrated.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Eastern tribes would have eaten [[Cod (food)|cod]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/brief-history-of-cod-fishing-2291538|title=Atlantic Cod's Importance in American History|first1=Resource Administration and Management|last1=M. S.|first2=Natural Resources|last2=B. S.|website=ThoughtCo|access-date=January 2, 2021|archive-date=January 22, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122130322/https://www.thoughtco.com/brief-history-of-cod-fishing-2291538|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nativeamericannetroots.net/diary/1401|title=Aboriginal New England Cuisine With Recipes &#124; Native American Netroots|access-date=January 2, 2021|archive-date=November 16, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231116074314/http://nativeamericannetroots.net/diary/1401|url-status=live}}</ref> particularly groups that spoke the [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian]] languages of [[New England]] as far south as present day [[Connecticut]], [[winter flounder]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://41nmagazine.org/2020/12/22/in-times-of-hardship-saved-by-the-sea/|title=In Times of Hardship, Saved by the Sea|date=December 22, 2020|website=41ºN Magazine|access-date=January 2, 2021|archive-date=January 14, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114225636/https://41nmagazine.org/2020/12/22/in-times-of-hardship-saved-by-the-sea/|url-status=live}}</ref> and other [[flatfish]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.warpaths2peacepipes.com/indian-tribes/narragansett-tribe.htm|title=Narragansett Tribe: Facts, Clothes, Food and History ***|website=warpaths2peacepipes.com|access-date=January 2, 2021|archive-date=April 20, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420151619/https://www.warpaths2peacepipes.com/indian-tribes/narragansett-tribe.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> species of herring like the [[Alewife (fish)|alewife]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Taft |first1=Dave |title=The Stubborn Staying Power of the Alewife Herring (Published 2017) |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/16/nyregion/alewife-herring.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/16/nyregion/alewife-herring.html |archive-date=January 1, 2022 |url-access=limited |work=The New York Times |date=March 16, 2017 }}{{cbignore}}</ref> [[American shad|shad]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fondazioneslowfood.com/en/ark-of-taste-slow-food/american-shad/|title=American Shad – Arca del Gusto|website=Slow Food Foundation|access-date=January 2, 2021|archive-date=August 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813001518/https://www.fondazioneslowfood.com/en/ark-of-taste-slow-food/american-shad/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Atlantic herring]], and [[Atlantic menhaden]],<ref>Olsen SL: '''Animals in American Indian Life: An Overview'''. In: ''Stars Above, Earth Below American Indians and Nature.'' edn. Edited by Bol MC. Dublin: Roberts Rinehart Publishers; 1998: 95–118.</ref><ref>Speck FG, Hassrick RB, Carpenter ES: '''Rappahannock Taking Devices: Traps, Hunting and Fishing'''. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania and the Philadelphia Anthropological Society; 1946.</ref>   They also would have consumed the [[Atlantic sturgeon]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.warpaths2peacepipes.com/indian-tribes/powhatan-tribe.htm|title=Powhatan Tribe: Facts, Clothes, Food and History ***|website=warpaths2peacepipes.com|access-date=January 2, 2021|archive-date=April 20, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420172402/https://www.warpaths2peacepipes.com/indian-tribes/powhatan-tribe.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[drum (fish)|drum]].

In the West, Pacific several species of sturgeon, like the [[white sturgeon]]<ref>{{Cite web|date=July 1, 2019|title=White Sturgeon|url=https://kaniksulandtrust.org/2019/07/01/white-sturgeon/|access-date=January 2, 2021|website=Kaniksu Land Trust|language=en-US|archive-date=September 24, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924170308/https://kaniksulandtrust.org/2019/07/01/white-sturgeon/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[green sturgeon]],<ref>Gobalet, K.W., P.D. Schultz, T.A. Wake, and N. Siefkin. 2004. Archaeological perspectives on Native American fisheries of California, with emphasis on steelhead and salmon. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 133:801–833.</ref> [[Oily fish|olachen]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/permanent/northwest-coast/kwakwa-ka-wakw/kwakwa-ka-wakw-collection/fishing-gear/olachen-fishing|title=Olachen Fishing|website=American Museum of Natural History|access-date=January 2, 2021|archive-date=August 14, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814165246/https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/permanent/northwest-coast/kwakwa-ka-wakw/kwakwa-ka-wakw-collection/fishing-gear/olachen-fishing|url-status=live}}</ref> and several autochthonal fish of the [[Oncorhynchus|''Oncorhynchus'' family]] including the [[rainbow trout]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/water_issues/programs/mercury/docs/tribes_%20fish_use.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/water_issues/programs/mercury/docs/tribes_%20fish_use.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |title=California Tribes fish use |date=2014 |website=waterboards.ca.gov |access-date=January 2, 2021}}</ref> [[cutthroat trout]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bpa.gov/news/newsroom/pages/Help-native-trout-and-win-thousands-of-dollars-in-prizes.aspx|title=Help native trout and win thousands of dollars in prizes|website=bpa.gov|access-date=January 2, 2021|archive-date=August 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813052520/https://www.bpa.gov/news/newsroom/pages/Help-native-trout-and-win-thousands-of-dollars-in-prizes.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[coho salmon]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oregonencyclopedia.org/articles/western_oregon_klickitats/#.X-_coy1h17g|title=Western Oregon Klikatats (Klickitats)|website=oregonencyclopedia.org|access-date=January 2, 2021|archive-date=November 25, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125061445/https://www.oregonencyclopedia.org/articles/western_oregon_klickitats/#.X-_coy1h17g|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://aliciapatterson.org/stories/homeward-hearts-story-pacific-salmon|title=Homeward Hearts: A Story Of Pacific Salmon &#124; Alicia Patterson Foundation|website=aliciapatterson.org|access-date=January 2, 2021|archive-date=April 8, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408091059/https://aliciapatterson.org/stories/homeward-hearts-story-pacific-salmon|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>[[Alfred L. Kroeber|Kroeber, Alfred Louis]] (1925). ''Handbook of the Indians of California''. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.</ref> [[kokanee salmon]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.critfc.org/salmon-culture/tribal-salmon-culture/|title=Salmon Culture &#124; Pacific Northwest tribes, Columbia River salmon|website=CRITFC|access-date=January 2, 2021|archive-date=January 24, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124060606/https://www.critfc.org/salmon-culture/tribal-salmon-culture/|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[chinook salmon]]. The last makes an appearance in the accounts of [[Lewis and Clark]] as being fished for in the [[Columbia River Basin]], and this species is named for a family of tribes of the Pacific Northwest, indicating its important role in that food culture.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

[[Pacific gray whale]]s and [[Humpback whale|humpbacks]] were hunted by American Indians off the Northwest coast, especially by the [[Makah]], and used for their meat and oil.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y84rc5HGKpEC&q=seafood+native+americans+herring+halibut&pg=PA226|title=Native Americans: Southwest – California – Northwest Coast – Great Basin – Plateau|first=Barry|last=Pritzker|date=August 8, 1998|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9780874368369|via=Google Books}}</ref> [[Catfish]] was also popular among native people throughout the land, over many types of terrain.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

Crustaceans included [[Shrimp (food)|shrimp]], [[Lobster meat|lobster]], [[Crayfish (food)|crayfish]], and [[dungeness crab]]s in the Northwest and shrimp, lobster and [[Callinectes sapidus|blue crabs]] in the East. Other shellfish include [[abalone]] and [[geoduck]] on the West Coast, while on the East Coast the [[Atlantic surf clam|surf clam]], [[quahog]], and the [[soft-shell clam]]. [[Oyster]]s were eaten on both shores, as were [[Mussel#As food|mussel]]s and [[Common periwinkle|periwinkles]].<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Root|De Rochemont|1981|pp=21,22}}</ref>

====Cooking methods====
Early American natives used a number of cooking methods that have been blended with early European cooking methods to form the basis of American cuisine. [[Grilling]] meats was common. [[Spit roast]]ing over a pit fire was common as well. Vegetables, especially [[root vegetable]]s, were often cooked directly in the ashes of the fire.

As early Native Americans lacked pottery that could be used directly over a fire, they developed a technique many [[anthropologist]]s call "[[stone boiling]]". They heated rocks in a fire, then added the rocks to a pot filled with water until it came to a boil to cook the meat or vegetables. In what is now the Southwestern United States, they also created [[adobe]] ovens, dubbed ''[[horno]]s'' by the [[Conquistadors|Spanish]], to bake products such as [[cornmeal]] bread. Other parts of America dug [[Earth oven|pit ovens]], which were also used to steam foods by adding heated rocks or embers. One technique performed extensively by New England tribes was adding seaweed or corn husks on top of the layers of stones to steam fish and shellfish as well as vegetables.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}} A later addition was potatoes, a garden plant that came to New England by the 18th century, added while still in skin with [[corn]] in husk, later to be referred to as a [[clambake]] by colonists.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Root|De Rochemont|1981|pp=31,32}}</ref>

===Colonial period===
{{Main|Cuisine of the Thirteen Colonies}}
[[File:Our_(Almost_Traditional)_Thanksgiving_Dinner.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Roast turkey with [[gravy]], cranberry sauce, mashed potatoes, green beans, sweet and sour cod, steamed rice, ''achara'' (pickled green papaya relish), ''leche flan'', pig in a blanket and apple crisp]]
[[File:Map of territorial growth 1775.jpg|thumb|left|Map of the [[13 American colonies|13 American Colonies]] in 1775]]

The [[European colonization of the Americas|European settlement of the Americas]] introduced a number of ingredients, spices, herbs, and cooking styles to the continent.

When European colonists came to [[History of Virginia|Virginia]], [[History of Pennsylvania|Pennsylvania]], [[History of Massachusetts|Massachusetts]], and any of the other English colonies on the eastern seaboard of North America, their initial attempts at survival included planting crops familiar to them from back home in England. In the same way, they farmed animals for clothing and meat.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}} Through hardships and the eventual establishment of trade with England, the [[West Indies]] and other regions, the colonists were able to derive a cuisine similar to what they had previously [[British cuisine|consumed in Britain]] and [[Irish cuisine|Ireland]], while also introducing local animals and plants to their diet. American colonists followed along the line of British cookery up until the Revolution, when a desire to distinguish themselves from Britain led Americans to create "American" styles of cookery.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Smith|2004|p=512}}.</ref>

In 1796, the first American cookbook was published, and others followed.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stavely|first1=Keith|last2=Fitzgerald|first2=Kathleen|title=Northern Hospitality: Cooking by the Book in New England|year=2011|publisher=[[University of Massachusetts Press]]|pages=7–33|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pRbJUQMM0ssC|access-date=August 12, 2016|chapter=Culinarily Colonized: Cookbooks in Colonial New England|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pRbJUQMM0ssC&pg=PA7|jstor=j.ctt5vk2dv|isbn=978-1558498617}}</ref> There was a general disdain for [[French cuisine|French cuisine/French cookery]], even with French [[Huguenot]] settlers in [[South Carolina]] and French-Canadian emigrants in America. One of the cookbooks that proliferated in the colonies was the English cookbook  ''[[The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy]]'' (1747) by [[Hannah Glasse]], who referred to "the blind folly of this age that would rather be imposed on by a French booby, than give encouragement to a good English cook!" Of the French recipes given in the text, she speaks out flagrantly against the dishes as she "... think[s] it an odd jumble of trash."<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Glasse|1750}}.</ref>

With the introduction of slavery, Africans were brought into the colonies. With them, came foods and ingredients such as [[bananas]], [[peanut]]s, [[sweet potato]], [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]], and [[coffee]], and cooking styles reminiscent of West African cuisines are still found in many dishes, especially in [[Southern cuisine]].

The [[expulsion of the Acadians]] from Acadia led many of them to Louisiana, where they left a French influence [[Cajun cuisine|in the diet]] of those settled in Louisiana, and among the Acadian Francophones who settled eastern Maine and parts of what is now northern Vermont at the same time they colonized New Brunswick.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Smith|2004|p=512, Vol. 1}}.</ref>

Some of the Jews who fled from the [[Spanish Inquisition|Inquisition]] with other [[Sephardic Jews]] in the 15th century had previously settled in [[Recife, Brazil]] and the [[West Indies]], where their cuisine was influenced by new local ingredients like [[molasses]], [[rum]], [[sugar]], [[vanilla]], [[chocolate]], [[Capsicum|peppers]], [[corn]], [[tomato]]es, [[kidney beans]], [[string beans]] and [[turkey (food)|turkey]]. In 1654, twenty three Sephardic Jews arrived in [[New Amsterdam]]  bringing this cuisine with them to the early colonial United States. Early American Jewish cuisine was heavily influenced by this branch of Sephardic cuisine. Many of the recipes were bound up in observance of traditional holidays and remained true to their origins. These included dishes such as stew and fish fried in [[olive oil]], beef and bean stews, [[almond pudding]]s, and [[egg custard]]s. The first [[kosher food|kosher]] cookbook in America was the ''Jewish Cookery Book'' by Esther Levy, published in 1871 in [[Philadelphia]] and includes many of the traditional recipes.<ref>{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Andrew|title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America|date=January 31, 2013|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DOJMAgAAQBAJ|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=375|isbn=978-0-19-973496-2|access-date=March 18, 2023|archive-date=May 21, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521012537/https://books.google.com/books?id=DOJMAgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Common ingredients====
[[File:New England clam bake.jpg|thumb|A New England [[clam bake]] consists of various steamed [[shellfish]].]]
The American colonial diet varied depending on the settled region in which someone lived. Local cuisine patterns had been established by the mid-18th century. The [[New England]] colonies were extremely similar in their dietary habits to those that many of them had brought [[English cuisine|from England]]. As many of the New Englanders were originally from England, game hunting was useful when they immigrated to the [[New World]]. Many of the northern colonists depended upon their ability to hunt, or upon others from whom they could purchase game. Hunting was the preferred method of protein acquisition, as opposed to animal husbandry, which required much more work to defend the kept animals against raids.<ref>{{Cite book |date=January 1, 2012 |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acref/9780199734962.001.0001 |volume=2 |pages=26 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199734962.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-973496-2 |access-date=May 24, 2023 |archive-date=January 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116171827/http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199734962.001.0001/acref-9780199734962 |url-status=live }}</ref>

A striking difference for the colonists in New England compared to other regions was seasonality.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Oliver|2005|pp=16–19}}.</ref> While in the southern colonies, they could farm almost year-round, in the northern colonies, the growing seasons were very restricted. In addition, northern colonists' close proximity to the ocean gave them a bounty of fresh fish to add to their diet.

[[Wheat]], the grain used to bake bread back in England, was almost impossible to grow, and imports of wheat were far from cost productive.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Pillsbury|1998|p=25}}.</ref>{{dubious|Clarify timeperiod and location(New England?)|date=July 2015}} Substitutes in cases such as this included cornmeal. The [[Johnnycake]] was a poor substitute to some for wheaten bread, but acceptance by both the northern and southern colonies seems evident.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Oliver|2005|p=22}}.</ref>

====Livestock and game====
Commonly hunted game included deer, bear, [[American bison|buffalo]], and wild turkey. The larger muscles of the animals were roasted and served with currant sauce, while the other smaller portions went into [[soup]]s, [[stew]]s, [[sausage]]s, [[pie]]s, and pastries.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Smith|2004|pp=546–547, Vol. 1}}.</ref> In addition to the game, colonists' protein intake was supplemented by [[mutton]].

The [[Spanish people|Spanish]] in [[Florida]] originally introduced [[sheep]] to the New World, but this development never quite reached the North, and there they were introduced by the [[Dutch people|Dutch]] and English. The keeping of sheep was a result of the English non-practice of [[animal husbandry]].<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Smith|2004|p=26, Vol. 2}}.</ref> The animals provided wool when young and mutton upon maturity after wool production was no longer desirable.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Root|De Rochemont|1981|pp=176–182}}</ref> The forage-based diet for sheep that prevailed in the Colonies produced a characteristically strong, gamy flavor and a tougher consistency, which required aging and slow cooking to tenderize.<ref>{{cite news |first=R.W. Jr. |last=Apple |title=Much Ado About Mutton, but Not in These Parts |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/29/dining/29mutt.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=March 29, 2006 |access-date=January 23, 2008 |quote=Until it fell from favor after World War II, it was a favorite of most Britons, who prized [[mutton]] above lamb (from younger animals) for its texture and flavor. It has a bolder taste, a deeper color and a chewier consistency. |archive-date=April 16, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416174107/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/29/dining/29mutt.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Fats and oils====
[[Image:Plate of scrapple.jpg|thumb|200px|A plate of [[scrapple]], a traditional dish of the [[Delaware Valley]] region made of [[pork]] and [[cornmeal]], still eaten today]]
[[Fat]]s and [[oil]]s made from animals served to cook many colonial foods. Many homes had a sack made of deerskin filled with bear oil for cooking, while solidified bear fat resembled [[shortening]].

Rendered [[pork]] fat made the most popular cooking medium, especially from the cooking of [[bacon]]. Pork fat was used more often in the southern colonies than the northern colonies as the Spanish introduced pigs earlier to the South. The colonists enjoyed [[butter]] in cooking as well, but it was rare prior to the [[American Revolution]], as [[cattle]] were not yet plentiful.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Smith|2004|pp=458–459, Vol. 2}}.</ref>

====Alcoholic drinks====
Prior to the [[American Revolution|Revolution]], New Englanders consumed large quantities of [[rum]] and [[beer]], as maritime trade provided them relatively easy access to the goods needed to produce these items. Rum was the distilled spirit of choice, as the main ingredient, [[molasses]], was readily available from trade with the West Indies.

Further into the interior, however, one would often find colonists consuming [[whiskey]], as they did not have similar access to [[sugar cane]]. They did have ready access to corn and rye, which they used to produce their whiskey.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Pillsbury|1998|p=17}}.</ref>

Until the Revolution, many considered whiskey to be a coarse alcohol unfit for human consumption, as many believed that it caused the poor to become raucous and unkempt drunkards.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Crowgey|1971|pp=18–19}}.</ref> In addition to these alcohol-based products produced in America, imports were seen on merchant shelves, including [[wine]] and [[brandy]].<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Pillsbury|1998|p=18}}.</ref>

====Southern variations====
In comparison to the northern colonies, the [[southern colonies]] were quite diverse in their agricultural diet. The uplands of [[Piedmont (United States)|Piedmont]] and the [[Atlantic coastal plain|coastal lowlands]] made up the two main parts of the southern colonies.

The diet of the uplands often included wild game, [[cabbage]], [[string beans]], [[corn]], [[Cucurbita|squashes]] and white [[potato]]es. People had biscuits as part of their [[breakfast]], along with healthy portions of pork.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Pillsbury|1998|pp=47–48}}.</ref> The lowlands of Louisiana included a varied diet heavily influenced by the French, Spanish, Acadians, Germans, Native Americans, Africans and Caribbeans. Rice played a large part of the diet in Louisiana. In addition, unlike the uplands, the lowlands subsistence of protein came mostly from coastal seafood. Much of the diet involved the use of peppers, as it still does to this day.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Pillsbury|1998|pp=48–49}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvcolnb|Smith|2004|p=149, Vol. 2}}.</ref>

===Post-colonial cuisine===
During the 18th and 19th centuries, Americans developed many new foods. Some, such as [[Rocky Mountain oyster]]s, stayed regional; some spread throughout the nation but with little international appeal, such as [[peanut butter]] (a core ingredient of the [[peanut butter and jelly sandwich]]); and some spread throughout the world, such as [[popcorn]], [[cola]],  [[cornbread]], quickbread [[muffin]]s such as the [[poppyseed muffin]], and [[Chocolate brownie|brownies]].

==== 19th-century American farmhouse ====
During the 1800s, [[Agriculture in the United States|American farms]] were mostly self-sufficient, but certain staples like [[Edible salt|salt]], [[coffee]], [[sugar]], and [[baking soda]] would be purchased at the town general store. If the family did not grow [[wheat]], then [[flour]] would also be purchased. Another luxury was canned [[Salmon as food|salmon]], which was sometimes eaten for Sunday dinner. Items purchased at the general store would be paid for with eggs, [[butter]] or some other food from the farm. Women were responsible for much of the processing of food like straining fresh milk, churning butter, making [[molasses]] from [[sorghum]], grinding [[corn]] into cornmeal or cleaning whole [[Chicken as food|chicken]]s. Fresh picked [[apple]]s were pressed into [[cider]], which could be [[ferment]]ed to make [[apple cider vinegar]]. [[Fruit]]s and [[vegetable]]s were [[food preservation|preserved]] by various means like canning, drying or [[pickling]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

One contemporary writer from [[Michigan]] described October as cider season, when [[apple butter]] would be made. Her writings mention [[johnnycake]]s, and, as winter fare, [[buckwheat]] cakes.<ref name="coe">{{Cite book| publisher = HarperCollins| isbn = 978-0-06-221643-4| last1 = Ziegelman| first1 = Jane| last2 = Coe| first2 = Andrew| title = A Square Meal: A Culinary History of the Great Depression| date = August 16, 2016}}</ref>

Typical farmhouse fare included fried chicken, simmered [[green beans]], boiled corn, [[chicken and dumplings]], fried [[ham]], boiled [[beans]] and [[beets]], [[stewed tomatoes]], potatoes, and [[coleslaw]] made of shredded [[cabbage]]. ''Pon haus'', similar to the [[scrapple]] of the [[Pennsylvania Dutch]], was a typical breakfast dish among the Germans who had settled [[Indiana]] in the 19th century.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

Pork scraps and [[corn meal]] were cooked into a thick [[porridge]] and molded in loaf pans. Once solidified, the mixture would be cut and fried. During the fall months, pork might be replaced with fried apples or potatoes. It was served with buttered [[biscuits]], jam, jelly, milk gravy or sorghum syrup. Fruit butter might be made from apples, plums or peaches to accompany the meal.<ref name="coe" />

{{Quote box
 |quote  = "A whole new class of city dwellers, harried, worried, furtive, hungry-looking people, have come into being in the wake of the [[kitchenette]], and no modern influence has had so great a part in affecting the morals, health and spiritual well-being of a generation as has this ill-shapen, ill-planned adjunct of modern living"
 |author = Jane Pride
 |source = ''[[New York Herald]]''
 |width  = 30%
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}}

===20th century===
The 20th century revolutionized American cooking, with the advent of many new technologies, and a continued influx of immigrants with unique food traditions.

==== Pre-World War I ====
At the universities, nutritionists and home economists taught a new scientific approach to food. In the early 1900s [[muckraking]] journalists raised public concern about the wholesomeness of industrialized food products that contained various preservatives and adulterants of unknown safety.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}} From 1902 to 1912 [[Harvey Washington Wiley]], a chemist at the [[U.S. Department of Agriculture]], supervised "hygienic table trials" to test the safety of food additives and preservatives. His work contributed to the enactment of the [[Pure Food and Drug Act]] of 1906.  He became the first commissioner of the [[FDA]] and later led the [[Good Housekeeping Seal|laboratories of ''Good Housekeeping'' Magazine]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=June 1, 2016 |title=Harvey Washington Wiley |url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/historical-profile/harvey-washington-wiley |access-date=June 16, 2021 |website=Science History Institute |language=en |archive-date=June 24, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624195431/https://www.sciencehistory.org/historical-profile/harvey-washington-wiley |url-status=live }}</ref>

During World War I the [[Progressives]]' moral advice about food conservation was emphasized in large-scale state and federal programs designed to educate housewives. Large-scale foreign aid during and after the war brought American standards to Europe.<ref>Helen Zoe Veit, ''Modern Food, Moral Food: Self-Control, Science, and the Rise of Modern American Eating in the Early Twentieth Century'' (2013)</ref>

From 1912 to the end of the 1930s researchers discovered and popularized the role of various [[Vitamin|vitamins and minerals]] in human health. Starting with [[iodized salt]] in 1924, commercially distributed food began to be [[Food fortification|fortified]] with vitamins and minerals.  In 1932, milk began to be fortified with [[Ergosterol|viosterol]], a purified vitamin D2 product. Synthetic [[Thiamine|thiamin (vitamin B1)]] first became available after 1936 and bakers began voluntarily [[Food fortification|enriching bread]] with high-vitamin yeast or synthetic vitamins in the late 1930s.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

The cookware of the period was made of [[cast iron]] and these were thoroughly seasoned with pork fat. Fried [[salt pork]] with gravy was an indulgent fat-laden dish often served with a side of boiled potatoes. In the [[Appalachian region]] a dish called "killed lettuce" was made with [[pokeweed]], [[dandelion]] and assorted wild greens that were drizzled with hot bacon grease until wilted or "killed".<ref name="coe" />

[[Pie]] could be served up to three times a day and many varieties were prepared depending on the season. During the spring months, pies would be made of [[rhubarb]] and [[strawberry]]; in summer [[peach]], [[cherry]], [[blackberry]], [[blueberry]], [[elderberry]] and [[grape]]; and in fall [[apple]].<ref name="coe" />

The staples of the urban diet were [[Bread in American cuisine|bread]], [[dairy]] and canned goods. Dinner might be [[Tomato soup|tomato bisque]] from a can topped with [[cream]] or a salad made of canned [[string beans]] and [[mayonnaise]]. Many preferred to purchase food at [[delicatessen]]s, rather than attempt to prepare meals in the cramped kitchenettes.

German delicatessens in cities like New York and [[Milwaukee]] sold imported cold cuts, [[potato salad]]s, ''[[schmierkase]]'', ''[[wienerwurst]]'', North Sea [[Herring as food|herring]], assorted [[Pickling|pickles]] (pickled [[cucumber]]) and other prepared foods. [[History of the Jews in the United States|Jewish immigrants]] from Germany soon followed suit, replacing pork dishes with [[corned beef]] (salt-cured beef) and [[pastrami]]. [[Ice cream soda]] was served at soda fountains, along with various other early "soda water" recipes like the Garden Sass Sundae (rhubarb) or the Oh-Oh-Cindy Sundae (strawberry ice cream topped with chocolate syrup, chopped nuts, whipped cream and candied cherries).<ref name="coe" />

During that same time frame, grain-feeding of cattle during low pasture months made milk increasingly available year-round. The invention of [[Automatic milking|milking machines]] lowered production costs. [[Pasteurization]], [[Homogenization (chemistry)|homogenization]], [[Evaporated milk|evaporation]], [[Condensed milk|condensation]], and [[refrigeration]] along with glass milk bottles, wax-paper cartons, and then plastic bottles made milk increasingly available and safe for urban consumers.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kurlansky |first1=Mark |title=Milk! : a 10,000-year food fracas |date=May 8, 2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1632863829 |edition=First}}</ref> Milk became a [[staple food]] item and an increasingly important ingredient in American cuisine.  Examples include the [[root beer float]] and the [[milkshake]].

[[Pork]] was a staple of the rural diet through the Southern and Midwestern United States. [[Lard]] was used for baking, frying and even as a seasoning.

[[File:Milkshakes at Mels Diner.jpg|thumb|left|A strawberry and a chocolate shake, each topped with [[whipped cream]], [[sprinkles]], and a [[maraschino cherry]]]]

Major railroads featured upscale cuisine in their dining cars.<ref>James D. Porterfield, ''Dining by Rail: The History and Recipes of America's Golden Age of Railroad Cuisine'' (1993)</ref> Restaurant chains emerged with standardized decor and menus, including the [[Fred Harvey Company|Fred Harvey]] restaurants along the route of the [[Santa Fe Railroad]] in the Southwest.<ref>Stephen Fried, ''Appetite for America: How Visionary Businessman Fred Harvey Built a Railroad Hospitality Empire That Civilized the Wild West'' (Bantam; 2010)</ref>

==== World War II and later ====
The Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Science established the first set of "[[Dietary Reference Intake|Recommended Dietary Allowances]]" in 1941. In 1943, the US War Foods Administration issued the War Food Order No. 1, which made enriched bread the temporary law of the land.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bishai |first1=David |last2=Nalubola |first2=Ritu |date=October 2002 |title=The History of Food Fortification in the United States |url=http://web1.sph.emory.edu/users/hpacho2/PartnershipsMaize/Bishai_2002.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Economic Development and Cultural Change |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=37–53 |doi=10.1086/345361 |s2cid=154018967 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190202104716/http://web1.sph.emory.edu/users/hpacho2/PartnershipsMaize/Bishai_2002.pdf |archive-date=February 2, 2019 |access-date=February 23, 2019}}</ref>

In 1945, George Stigler published an article on "The cost of subsistence" which described the so-called [[Stigler diet]], his solution to the problem of providing a diet that met the RDA at a minimum cost.

The logistical requirements of the US military during [[WW2]] and the [[Korean War]] spurred the development and growth of the [[processed foods]] industry in the US.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Twilley |first1=Nicola |date=August 10, 2015 |title=How Military R&D Created The Food We Eat |url=https://www.popsci.com/how-military-created-food-we-know-it |access-date=September 12, 2018 |website=Popular Science |language=en |archive-date=June 29, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629013135/https://www.popsci.com/how-military-created-food-we-know-it |url-status=live }}</ref> These wars encouraged the production of shelf-stable ingredients processed on a vast industrial scale. Examples include [[powdered milk]], [[powdered eggs]], [[potato flakes]], and [[Frozen OJ|frozen concentrated orange juice]].

After the war, low-cost, highly processed foods became one of the foundational elements of an era of mass prosperity.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Maurer |first1=Elizabeth |date=May 11, 2017 |title=How Highly Processed Foods Liberated 1950s Housewives |url=https://www.womenshistory.org/articles/how-highly-processed-foods-liberated-1950s-housewives |access-date=September 12, 2018 |website=National Women's History Museum |language=en |archive-date=September 12, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180912131423/https://www.womenshistory.org/articles/how-highly-processed-foods-liberated-1950s-housewives |url-status=live }}</ref>  Many companies in the American [[food industry]] developed new products requiring minimal preparation, such as frozen entrees.<ref>{{cite news |title=ConAgra's Chief Is Moving to Revitalize Some Venerable Brands |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=June 13, 2007 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/13/business/13conagra.html |access-date=January 16, 2015 |last1=Martin |first1=Andrew |archive-date=January 16, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150116183525/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/13/business/13conagra.html |url-status=live }}</ref> One such example is the [[TV dinner]] in which a multi-course meal was assembled in aluminum packaging in a food factory and flash frozen, then reheated at home in a thermal oven to be served while watching TV.<ref>{{cite web |date=March 28, 2005 |title=1950s TV Turns on America |url=http://adage.com/article/75-years-of-ideas/1950s-tv-turns-america/102703/ |access-date=September 12, 2018 |website=AdAge |language=en |archive-date=March 31, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331151032/http://adage.com/article/75-years-of-ideas/1950s-tv-turns-america/102703/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Convenience food]]s of the era were designed to simplify home preparation.

One example is [[Kraft Dinner|macaroni and cheese]] created using a powdered artificial cheese product that is reconstituted at home with fresh milk. Newspapers and magazines ran recipe columns, aided by research from corporate kitchens, which were major food manufacturers like [[General Mills]], [[Campbell's]], and [[Kraft Foods]]. For example, General Mills ''Betty Crocker's Cookbook'', first published in 1950, was a popular book in American homes.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Crocker|2005}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=November 14, 2007 |title=Face value: Fictional Betty Crocker gives big business a human touch Deseret News (Salt Lake City) |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4188/is_20071003/ai_n21022934 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071114015916/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4188/is_20071003/ai_n21022934 |archive-date=November 14, 2007 |access-date=October 14, 2017}}</ref>

Highly processed foods of the mid-20th century included novelty elements like multi-colored [[Jell-O]] using various chemical [[food coloring]]s, prepared [[breakfast cereal]]s marketed to children with large amounts of sugar and artificial colors (e.g. [[Froot Loops]]).<ref>{{cite web |last1=Pinsker |first1=Joe |date=May 8, 2017 |title=Americans' Bizarre Relationship With the Color of Their Food |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2017/05/american-food-coloring-dyes/525666/ |url-access=subscription |access-date=September 12, 2018 |website=The Atlantic |archive-date=September 12, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180912131414/https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2017/05/american-food-coloring-dyes/525666/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Fruit-flavored punches made with artificial fruit flavorings (e.g. [[Tang (drink)|Tang]], [[Hi-C]]).  Mid-20th-century foods also added novelty packaging elements like [[Easy Cheese|spray cheese in an aerosol can]], [[pimento]]-stuffed olives, and [[Capri Sun|drink pouches]].

The development of the [[microwave oven]] resulted in the creation of industrial food products and packaging intended to take advantage of the opportunities and overcome the unique challenges of that technology.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Cavolt |first1=Jessie |last2=Dean |first2=Kelsey |last3=White |first3=Madison |last4=Salita |first4=Helen |title=Impact on American Society – The Microwave |url=http://historyoftech.mcclurken.org/microwave/the-impact/ |access-date=September 12, 2018 |website=Museum of the History of American Technology & Culture |language=en |archive-date=September 12, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180912134336/http://historyoftech.mcclurken.org/microwave/the-impact/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Microwave popcorn]] is an example of such a product.

Throughout the second half of the 20th century, the US commercial [[food system]] has become increasingly dependent on [[Agricultural subsidy#United States|subsidized]] [[maize]] (corn) production to provide feed for livestock and ingredients for human foods such as [[high-fructose corn syrup]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Foley |first1=Jonathan |date=March 5, 2013 |title=It's Time to Rethink America's Corn System |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/time-to-rethink-corn/ |journal=Scientific American |language=en |access-date=February 23, 2019 |archive-date=January 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103212244/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/time-to-rethink-corn/ |url-status=live }}</ref> It is estimated that the typical American gets 70 percent of their [[carbon]] intake from [[maize]] (corn) sources.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gupta |first1=Sanjay |title=If we are what we eat, Americans are corn and soy |work=www.cnn.com |url=http://www.cnn.com/2007/HEALTH/diet.fitness/09/22/kd.gupta.column/ |access-date=February 23, 2019 |archive-date=February 23, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190223182541/http://www.cnn.com/2007/HEALTH/diet.fitness/09/22/kd.gupta.column/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The last half of the 20th century saw the development of controversial technological innovations intended to lower the cost of or increase the safety of commercial food, including [[food irradiation]],<ref name="maurer">K.F. Maurer, Zur Keimfreimachung von Gewürzen, Ernährungswirtschaft 5(1958) nr.1, 45–47</ref> [[genetically modified organism]]s, livestock treated with [[Antibiotic use in livestock|antibiotics]]/[[Beef hormone controversy|hormones]], and [[concentrated animal feeding operation]]s. Activists have raised concerns about the wholesomeness, safety, or humaneness of these innovations and recommend alternatives such as [[organic produce]], [[veganism]]/[[vegetarianism]], and [[Local food|locavore]] diets.

[[Fast-food]] restaurants with standardized product and franchised service models began to appear and spread with the development of the [[Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921|highway system]]. [[White Castle (restaurant)|White Castle]] (1916)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Castle |first=Jim Vickers {{!}} Photo courtesy of White |title=Famous Ohio Foods: White Castle |url=https://www.ohiomagazine.com/food-drink/article/famous-ohio-foods-white-castle |access-date=October 25, 2022 |website=ohiomagazine.com |language=en |archive-date=October 25, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221025205623/https://www.ohiomagazine.com/food-drink/article/famous-ohio-foods-white-castle |url-status=live }}</ref> was one of the first examples. Franchising was introduced in 1921 by [[A&W Root Beer]]. The [[McDonald's|McDonald brothers]] created their "Speedee Service System" in 1948. Other examples include [[Burger King]], [[Wendy's]], [[Pizza Hut]], [[Domino's Pizza]], [[Subway (restaurant)|Subway]], [[Arby's]], [[KFC]], [[Popeyes]] and [[Taco Bell]].

=== Ethnic influences ===
[[File:Cheeseburger (17237580619).jpg|thumb|A [[cheeseburger]] served with [[fries]] and [[coleslaw]]]]
One signature characteristic of American cooking is the [[Fusion cuisine|fusion]] of multiple ethnic or regional approaches into completely new cooking styles. For example, [[spaghetti]] is [[Italian cuisine|Italian]], while [[hot dog]]s are [[German cuisine|German]]; a popular meal, especially among young children, is spaghetti containing slices of hot dogs.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://food52.com/blog/22718-how-to-make-hot-dog-spaghetti-food-trends|title=Threaded Spaghetti Hot Dogs Were the Best Decision I've Ever Made|date=July 16, 2018|website=Food52|language=en-us|access-date=January 21, 2019|archive-date=January 11, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111195757/https://food52.com/blog/22718-how-to-make-hot-dog-spaghetti-food-trends|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.flavorednation.com/zz/lifestyle/20170807/sauce-your-hot-dogs-and-spaghetti-midwest-style|title=Sauce your hot dogs and spaghetti, Midwest-style|website=Flavored Nation|language=en|access-date=January 21, 2019|archive-date=January 21, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190121232530/http://www.flavorednation.com/zz/lifestyle/20170807/sauce-your-hot-dogs-and-spaghetti-midwest-style|url-status=dead}}</ref> Since the 1960s, Asian cooking has played a particularly large role in American fusion cuisine.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asian-nation.org/asian-food.shtml|title=Asian Cuisine & Foods : Asian-Nation :: Asian American History, Demographics, & Issues|publisher=Asian-nation.org|access-date=January 16, 2015|archive-date=August 13, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150813011704/http://www.asian-nation.org/asian-food.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Flickr sekimura 2390523527--Smoked salmon eggs Benedict.jpg|thumb|left|[[Eggs Benedict]], an American breakfast dish made with [[poached egg]]s and [[hollandaise sauce]], served in this variation with [[smoked salmon]]]]

Some dishes that are typically considered American have their origins in other countries. American cooks and chefs have substantially altered these dishes over the years, to the degree that the dishes now enjoyed around the world are considered to be American. [[Hot dog]]s and [[hamburger]]s are both based on traditional [[German cuisine|German]] dishes, but in their modern popular form they can be reasonably considered American dishes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art10695.asp|title=Hamburgers & Hot Dogs – All-American Food!|publisher=Bellaonline.com|access-date=January 16, 2015|archive-date=January 16, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150116202243/http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art10695.asp|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Pizza]] is based on the traditional [[Italian cuisine|Italian]] dish, brought by Italian immigrants to the United States, but varies highly in style based on the region of development since its arrival. For example, [[Chicago-style pizza|Chicago style]] has focus on a thicker, taller crust, whereas a "[[New York–style pizza|New York Slice]]" is known to have a much thinner crust which can be folded. These different types of pizza can be advertised throughout the country and are generally recognizable and well-known, with some restaurants going so far as to import New York tap water from a thousand or more miles away to recreate the signature style in other regions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eddieandsamspizza.com/index.php|title=Eddie & Sam's Pizza|publisher=Eddieandsamspizza.com|access-date=January 16, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150116202005/http://www.eddieandsamspizza.com/index.php|archive-date=January 16, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Some dishes that Americans think of as being of "foreign" in origin and/or associated with a particular immigrant group were in fact invented in America and customized to American tastes. For example, [[General Tso's chicken]] was invented by Chinese or Taiwanese chefs working in New York in the early 1970s.<ref name="hollywoodreporter.com">{{cite news |last1=DeFore |first1=John |title='The Search for General Tso': SIFF Review |url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/review/search-general-tso-siff-review-708453 |work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |access-date=April 30, 2019 |archive-date=April 30, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430205525/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/review/search-general-tso-siff-review-708453 |url-status=live }}</ref>  The dish is unknown in China, except for a distant resemblance to a much spicier dish from Hong Kong said to have influenced the American version.  The [[fortune cookie]] was likewise invented in California in the early 1900s and is known in Asia only as an American style food.<ref name="snopes2">{{Cite news|url=http://www.snopes.com/food/origins/fortune.asp|title=Origin of Fortune Cookies|date=June 9, 2008|work=Snopes.com|access-date=May 30, 2017|language=en-US}}</ref>

[[File:Roasted_American_Turkey_(6408110873).jpg|thumb|A modern dish consisting of traditional roasted turkey, [[sweet potato]]es, and grilled vegetables prepared with modern fusion ingredients]]

A wave of [[celebrity chef]]s began with [[Julia Child]] and [[Graham Kerr]] in the 1970s, with many more following after the rise of cable channels like [[Food Network]]. Probably the best-known television chef was Child, who taught French cuisine in her weekly show, ''[[The French Chef]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Julia Child {{!}} Biography, Cookbooks, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Julia-Child|access-date=October 15, 2021|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|archive-date=August 20, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210820104311/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Julia-Child|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== New American ===
{{Main|New American cuisine}}
During the 1980s, upscale restaurants introduced a mixing of cuisines that contain Americanized styles of cooking with foreign elements commonly referred to as [[New American cuisine]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.studio10.tv/category/recipes/segment.aspx/116055/|title=Foodies|year=2011|publisher=Studio 10|access-date=March 17, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140322014046/http://www.studio10.tv/category/recipes/segment.aspx/116055/|archive-date=March 22, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> a type of [[fusion cuisine]] combining flavors from the [[melting pot]] of traditional American cooking techniques with those from other cultures, sometimes adding [[molecular gastronomy]] components.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ltcconline.net/voced/culinaryarts/pdfs/ContemporaryCuisine.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.ltcconline.net/voced/culinaryarts/pdfs/ContemporaryCuisine.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live|title=Characteristics of Contemporary Cuisine|publisher=LTCC Online}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://philipmarie.com/history/|title=Philip Marie Restaurant|publisher=Pulsar Studio|access-date=March 14, 2014|archive-date=January 29, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130129012135/http://philipmarie.com/history/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== 21st century ===
By the beginning of the 21st century, regional variations in consumption of meat began to reduce, as more meat was consumed overall.<ref name="Warren2007"/> Saying they eat too much protein, the ''2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans'' asked men and teenage boys to increase their consumption of underconsumed foods such as vegetables.<ref>"Some individuals, especially teen boys and adult men, also need to reduce overall intake of protein foods by decreasing intakes of meats, poultry, and eggs and increasing amounts of vegetables or other underconsumed food groups." in {{cite web|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture.|title=2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans: Shifts Needed To Align With Healthy Eating Patterns: A Closer Look at Current Intakes and Recommended Shifts: Protein Foods|edition=8|date=December 2015|url=http://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015/guidelines/chapter-2/a-closer-look-at-current-intakes-and-recommended-shifts/|access-date=January 9, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160109170222/http://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015/guidelines/chapter-2/a-closer-look-at-current-intakes-and-recommended-shifts/|archive-date=January 9, 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Vegan]] and [[vegetarian]] meals have increased in popularity, with more restaurants catering to vegans and vegetarians.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brewczynski |first=Stasia |date=May 4, 2022 |title=Destination-Worthy Vegan Dining Around New England |url=https://boston.eater.com/23046884/best-vegan-restaurants-new-england |access-date=May 24, 2022 |website=Eater Boston |language=en |archive-date=May 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520132105/https://boston.eater.com/23046884/best-vegan-restaurants-new-england |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Creswell |first=Julie |date=September 8, 2021 |title=Plant-Based Foods Expand, With Consumers Hungry for More |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/08/business/plant-based-food-companies.html |access-date=May 24, 2022 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=June 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602034402/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/08/business/plant-based-food-companies.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Vaughn |first=Daniel |date=August 17, 2021 |title=Vegetarian Barbecue Isn't a Threat to Brisket |url=https://www.texasmonthly.com/bbq/vegetarian-barbecue-texas-rise/ |access-date=May 24, 2022 |website=Texas Monthly |language=en |archive-date=July 4, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220704131446/https://www.texasmonthly.com/bbq/vegetarian-barbecue-texas-rise/ |url-status=live }}</ref>