Editing Ambrose (section)

== Background and career ==
{{See also|Christianization of the Roman Empire as diffusion of innovation}}
<gallery>
Image:Sant'Ambrogio (Pacher).jpg|Painting by Michael Pacher
Image:AmbroseStatue.png|Engraving of a statue of Ambrose
Image:AugustineBaptism.jpg|Fresco of Ambrose baptizing [[Saint Augustine]], by [[Benozzo Gozzoli]]
</gallery>

Legends about Ambrose had spread through [[Roman Empire|the empire]] long before his biography was written, making it difficult for modern historians to understand his true character and fairly place his behaviour within the context of antiquity. Most agree he was the personification of his era.{{sfn|Smith|2021|p=5}}{{sfn|Ramsey|2002|p=ix}} This would make Ambrose a genuinely spiritual man who spoke up and defended his faith against opponents, an aristocrat who retained many of the attitudes and practices of a [[Roman governor]], and also an ascetic who served the poor.{{sfn|Ramsey|2002|pp=ix-x, 1-2}}

=== Early life ===
[[File:Altare di s. ambrogio, 824-859 ca., retro di vuolvino, storie di sant'ambrogio 06 miracolo delle api.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Relief]] by {{ill|Vuolvino|it}} depicting Ambrose as a child while bees swarm his crib. His father is on the right of the image while the sky has three clouds "sending forth flames".{{sfn|Paredi|1964|pp=442–443}} The relief is from the [[Altar of Sant'Ambrogio]] in the [[Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio]].]]

Ambrose was born into a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] [[Christians|Christian]] family, of [[Greeks|Greek]] descent,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ramsey |first=Boniface |url=https://books.google.nl/books?id=DM9tPXQTRBEC&pg=PA18 |title=Ambrose |date=1997 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-11841-5 |series=Early Church Fathers |pages=18 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Boucheron |first=Patrick |url=https://books.google.nl/books?id=2NLdDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA37 |title=Trace and Aura: The Recurring Lives of St. Ambrose of Milan |date=2022 |publisher=Other Press, LLC |isbn=978-1-63542-007-4 |pages=37 |language=en}}</ref> in the year 339.{{sfn|Cvetković |2019|p=44}} Ambrose himself wrote that he was 53 years old in his letter number 49, which has been dated to 392. He began life in Augusta Treverorum (modern [[Trier]]) the capital of the Roman province of [[Gallia Belgica]] in what was then northeastern [[Gaul]] and is now in the [[Rhineland-Palatinate]] in Germany.{{sfn|Loughlin|1907}} Scholars disagree on who exactly his father was. His father is sometimes identified with Aurelius Ambrosius,{{sfn|Greenslade|1956|p=175}}{{efn|"S. Paulinus in ''Vit. Ambr. 3'' has the following: ''posito in administratione prefecture Galliarum patre eius Ambrosio natus est Ambrosius''. From this, practically all of Ambrose's biographers have concluded that Ambrose's father was a praetorian prefect in Gaul. This is the only evidence we have, however, that there ever was an Ambrose as prefect in Gaul."{{sfn|Paredi|1964|p=380}}}} a [[Praetorian prefecture of Gaul|praetorian prefect of Gaul]];{{Sfn | Attwater | John | 1993}} but some scholars identify his father as an official named Uranius who received an [[Constitution (Roman law)|imperial constitution]] dated 3 February 339 (addressed in a brief extract from one of the three emperors ruling in 339, [[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]], [[Constantius II]], or [[Constans]], in the ''[[Codex Theodosianus]]'', book XI.5).{{sfn|Barnes|2011|pp=45–46}}{{sfn|Cvetković |2019|p= 44–46}} What does seem certain is that Ambrose was born in Trier and his father was either the praetorian prefect or part of his administration.{{sfn|Cvetković |2019|p= 46}}

A legend about Ambrose as an infant recounts that a swarm of [[bee]]s settled on his face while he lay in his cradle, leaving behind a drop of honey.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=van der Nat |first1=P. G. |last2=Hamman |first2=Adalberto |date=March 1971 |title=Patrologiae cursus completus, Series Latina. Supplementum, Volumen IV |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1583516 |journal=Vigiliae Christianae |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=76 |doi=10.2307/1583516 |jstor=1583516 |issn=0042-6032}}</ref> His father is said to have considered this a [[Christian symbolism|sign]] of his future eloquence and honeyed tongue. Bees and [[beehive]]s often appear in the [[saint symbolism|saint's symbology]].{{sfn|Thornton|1879|p=15}}

Ambrose's mother was a woman of intellect and piety.{{sfn|Grieve|1911|p=798}} It was probable that she was a member of the Roman family ''Aurelii Symmachi'',{{sfn|Barnes|2011|p=50}} which would make Ambrose a cousin of the orator [[Quintus Aurelius Symmachus]].{{sfn|Cvetković |2019|p=55–57}} The family had produced one martyr (the virgin [[Soteris]]) in its history.{{sfn|Cvetković |2019|p=52}} Ambrose was the youngest of three children. His siblings were [[Satyrus of Milan|Satyrus]], the subject of Ambrose's ''De excessu fratris Satyri'',<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/90298 | title = Santi Beati | place = Italy | language = it}}</ref> and [[Saint Marcellina|Marcellina]], who made a [[Consecrated virgin|profession of virginity]] sometime between 352 and 355; [[Pope Liberius]] himself conferred the veil upon her.{{sfn|Mediolanensis|2005|p=6}} Both Ambrose's siblings also became venerated as saints.

Sometime early in the life of Ambrose, his father died. At an unknown later date, his mother left Trier with her three children, and the family moved to Rome.{{sfn|Cvetković |2019|p=49}}<ref>{{CE1913 |inline=1 |last=Loughlin |first=James Francis |wstitle=St. Ambrose |volume=1 |ref=none}}</ref> There Ambrose studied [[literature]], [[law]], and [[rhetoric]].{{sfn|Cvetković |2019|p= 52}} He then followed in his father's footsteps and entered public service. [[Praetorian prefecture of Italy|Praetorian Prefect]] [[Sextus Claudius Petronius Probus]] first gave him a place as a judicial councillor,<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = McSherry
 |first1               = James
 |title                = Outreach and Renewal: A First-millennium Legacy for the Third-millennium Church
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=pGDQ_OKdtDgC
 |series               = Cistercian studies series, 236
 |year = 2011
 |location             = Collegeville, Minnesota
 |publisher            = Liturgical Press
 |publication-date     = 2011
 |page                 = 19
 |isbn                 = 9780879072360
 |quote                = An accomplished orator and legal advocate, Ambrose was appointed to the Judicial Council by Probus, Praetorian Prefect of Italy. 
}} 
</ref> and then in about 372 made him [[Roman governor|governor]] of the [[Roman province|province]] of [[Liguria (Roman province)|Liguria]] and [[Aemilia (Roman province)|Emilia]], with headquarters in Milan.{{Sfn | Attwater | John | 1993 | p=37}}{{sfn|Sparavigna|2016|p=2}}{{failed verification |date=July 2024 |reason=Neither Liguria, Aemilia, or Ambrose' governorship, let alone in 372, are mentioned on p 2}}

=== Bishop of Milan ===
In 374 [[Auxentius of Milan|the bishop of Milan, Auxentius]], an Arian, died, and the Arians challenged the [[Apostolic succession|succession]]. Ambrose went to the church where the election was to take place to prevent an uproar which seemed probable in this crisis. His address was interrupted by a call, "Ambrose, bishop!", which was taken up by the whole assembly.{{Sfn | Butler | 1991 | p = 407}}

Ambrose, though known to be [[Nicene Christian]] in belief, was considered acceptable to Arians due to the charity he had shown concerning their beliefs. At first, he energetically refused the office of bishop, for which he felt he was in no way prepared: Ambrose was a relatively new Christian who was not yet baptized nor formally trained in [[Christian theology|theology]].{{Sfn | Attwater | John | 1993}} Ambrose fled to a colleague's home, seeking to hide. Upon receiving a letter from the Emperor [[Gratianus|Gratian]] praising the appropriateness of Rome appointing individuals worthy of holy positions, Ambrose's host gave him up. Within a week, he was baptized, ordained and duly consecrated as the new bishop of [[Milan]]. This was the first time in the West that a member of the upper class of high officials had accepted the office of bishop.{{sfn|Lietzmann|1951|p=57}}

As bishop, he immediately adopted an ascetic lifestyle, apportioned his money to the poor, donating all of his land, making only provision for his sister [[Saint Marcellina|Marcellina]]. While Bishop of Milan, Ambrose carefully cultivated practices that respected local customs and that reflected his spiritual beliefs. He understood the link between a religious leader's life and their ability to model morality for congregants. In his work ''De Officiis'' (377–391), he asked, "How can you consider a man to be better than you when it comes to giving advice if you see that he is worse than you when it comes to morality?"<ref>(De Officiis 2.12.62)</ref> His humble and upright ways raised his standing among his people even further; it was his popularity with the people that gave him considerable political leverage throughout his career. Upon the unexpected appointment of Ambrose to the episcopate, his brother Satyrus resigned a [[prefecture]] in order to move to Milan, where he took over managing the diocese's temporal affairs.{{sfn|Loughlin|1907}}

=== Arianism ===
[[Arius]] (died 336) was a Christian priest who around the year 300 asserted that [[God the Father]] must have created [[God the Son|the Son]], indicating that the Son was a lesser being who was not eternal and of a different "essence" from God the Father. This [[Christology]], though contrary to tradition, quickly spread through Egypt, Libya and other Roman provinces.{{sfn|Kaye|1853|p=33}} Bishops engaged in the dispute, and the people divided into parties, sometimes demonstrating in the streets in support of one side or the other.{{sfn|Kaye|1853|p=5}}

Arianism appealed to many high-level leaders and clergy in both the [[Western Roman Empire|Western]] and [[Eastern Roman Empire|Eastern]] empires. Although the western Emperor [[Gratian]] ({{reign | 367 | 383}}) supported orthodoxy, his younger half brother [[Valentinian II]], who became his colleague in the empire in 375, adhered to the Arian creed.{{Sfn | Butler | 1991 | p = 408}} Ambrose sought to refute Arian propositions theologically, but Ambrose did not sway the young prince's position.{{Sfn | Butler | 1991 | p = 408}} In the East, Emperor [[Theodosius I]] ({{reign | 379 | 395|show=none}}) likewise professed the Nicene creed; but there were many adherents of Arianism throughout his dominions,{{sfn|Grieve|1911|p=798}} especially among the higher clergy.

In this state of religious ferment, two leaders of the Arians, bishops [[Palladius of Ratiaria]] and Secundianus of [[Singidunum]], confident of numbers, prevailed upon Gratian to call a general council from all parts of the empire. This request appeared so equitable that Gratian complied without hesitation. However, Ambrose feared the consequences and prevailed upon the emperor to have the matter determined by a council of the Western bishops. Accordingly, a [[Council of Aquileia, 381|synod]] composed of thirty-two bishops was held at [[Aquileia]] in the year 381. Ambrose was elected president and Palladius, being called upon to defend his opinions, declined. A vote was then taken and Palladius and his associate Secundianus were deposed from their episcopal offices.{{sfn|Grieve|1911|p=798}}

Ambrose struggled with Arianism for over half of his term in the episcopate.{{sfn|Ramsey|2002|pp=6–7|ps=: "By Ambrose's day [Arianism] was in slow decline but far from having breathed its last: Ambrose's struggles with it occupied his energies for more than half of his term as bishop."}} Ecclesiastical unity was important to the church, but it was no less important to the state, and as a Roman, Ambrose felt strongly about that.{{sfn|Lietzmann|1951|p=37}} Conflict over heresies loomed large in an age of religious ferment comparable to the Reformation of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.<ref>{{harvnb|Ramsey|2002|p=6}}: "[...] the history of the early Church [...] was [...] a golden age of religious ferment and controversy such as - it could well be argued - would not be seen again until the Reformation, more than a millennium later.</ref> Orthodox Christianity was determining how to define itself as it faced multiple challenges on both a theological and a practical level,{{sfn|Ramsey|2002|pp=7–8|ps=: "In the face of all these rivals orthodox Christianity was not an impassive object. In reacting to them it defined itself and assumed more and more of the contours that we recognize today."}} and Ambrose exercised crucial influence at a crucial time.{{sfn|Ramsey|2002|p=5|ps=: "The task that lay before the Christian leadership was [...] to replace one form of the sacred with another. The fourth century was above all the moment when this replacement was being orchestrated, and the role that Ambrose played in the process was crucial.}}

=== Imperial relations ===
Ambrose had good relations and varying levels of influence with the [[Roman emperor]]s [[Gratian]], [[Valentinian II]] and [[Theodosius I]], but exactly how much influence, what kind of influence, and in what ways, when, has been debated in the scholarship of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries.{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=79}}{{sfn|Nicholson|2018|p=xv}}{{sfn|Salzman|Sághy|Testa|2016|p=2}}

====Gratian====
It has long been convention to see Gratian and Ambrose as having a personal friendship, putting Ambrose in the dominant role of spiritual guide, but modern scholars now find this view hard to support from the sources.{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=79–80}} The ancient Christian historian [[Sozomen]] ({{circa|400|450}}) is the only ancient source that shows Ambrose and Gratian together in any personal interaction. In that interaction, Sozomen relates that, in the last year of Gratian's reign, Ambrose intruded on Gratian's private hunting party in order to appeal on behalf of a pagan senator sentenced to die. After years of acquaintance, according to professor Neil B. McLynn, this indicates that Ambrose could not take for granted that Gratian would see him, so instead, Ambrose had to resort to such manoeuvrings to make his appeal.{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=80}}

Gratian was personally devout long before meeting Ambrose.{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=79–80, 87}} Modern scholarship indicates Gratian's religious policies do not evidence capitulation to Ambrose more than they evidence Gratian's own views.{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=80}} Gratian's devotion did lead Ambrose to write a large number of books and letters of theology and spiritual commentary dedicated to the emperor. The sheer volume of these writings and the effusive praise they contain has led many historians to conclude that Gratian was dominated by Ambrose, and it was that dominance that produced Gratian's anti-pagan actions.{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=80}} McLynn asserts that effusive praises were common in everyone's correspondence with the crown. He adds that Gratian's actions were determined by the constraints of the system as much as "by his own initiatives or Ambrose's influence".{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=80}}

McLynn asserts that the largest influence on Gratian's policy was the profound change in political circumstances produced by the [[Battle of Adrianople]] in 378.{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=80,90;105}} Gratian had become involved in fighting the Goths the previous year and had been on his way to the Balkans when his uncle and the "cream of the eastern army" were destroyed at Adrianople. Gratian withdrew to [[Sirmium]] and set up his court there.{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=90}} Several rival groups, including the Arians, sought to secure benefits from the government at Sirmium.{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=90}} In an Arian attempt to undermine Ambrose, whom Gratian had not yet met, Gratian was "warned" that Ambrose's faith was suspect. Gratian took steps to investigate by writing to Ambrose and asking him to explain his faith.{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=98}}

Ambrose and Gratian first met, after this, in 379 during a visit to Milan. The bishop made a good impression on Gratian and his court, which was pervasively Christian and aristocratic – much like Ambrose himself.{{Efn|Two laws were recorded from this time. One of these cancelled the "law of toleration" Gratian had previously issued at Sirmium. This toleration allowed freedom of worship to all with the exception of the heretical [[Manichaeism|Manichaeans]], [[Photinians]] and [[Eunomians]].{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=91}} The law cancelling this has been presented in previous scholarship as proof of Ambrose's influence over Gratian, but the law's target was [[Donatism]] which had failed to be listed in the exceptions. There is no evidence to support Ambrose as having had anything to do with this restatement since sanctions against Donatism had existed since Constantine.{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=100-102}} }} The emperor returned to Milan in 380 to find that Ambrose had complied with his request for a statement of his faith – in two volumes – known as ''De Fide'': a statement of orthodoxy and of Ambrose' political theology, as well as a polemic against the Arian heresy – intended for public discussion.{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=103-105}} The emperor had not asked to be instructed by Ambrose, and in ''De Fide'' Ambrose states this clearly. Nor was he asked to refute the Arians. He was asked to justify his own position, but in the end, he did all three.{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=98-99}}

It seems that by 382 Ambrose had replaced [[Ausonius]] to become a major influence in Gratian's court. Ambrose had not yet become the "conscience" of kings he would in the later 380s, but he did speak out against reinstating the [[Altar of Victory]].{{sfn|Trout|1999|p=50}} In 382, Gratian was the first to divert public financial subsidies that had previously supported Rome's cults. Before that year, contributions in support of the ancient customs had continued unchallenged by the state.{{sfn|Lietzmann|1951|p=68}}

====Valentinian II====
The childless Gratian had treated his younger brother Valentinian II like a son.{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=104}} Ambrose, on the other hand, had incurred the lasting enmity of Valentinian II's mother, the Empress [[Justina (empress)|Justina]], in the winter of 379 by helping to appoint a Nicene bishop in Sirmium. Not long after this, Valentinian II, his mother, and the court left Sirmium; Sirmium had come under Theodosius' control, so they went to Milan which was ruled by Gratian.{{sfn|Liebeschuetz|Hill|Mediolanensis|2005|p=129}}

In 383 Gratian was assassinated at [[Lyon]], in Gaul (France) by [[Magnus Maximus]]. Valentinian was twelve years old, and the assassination left his mother, Justina, in a position of something akin to a regent.{{sfn|Liebeschuetz|Hill|Mediolanensis|2005|pp=129-130}} In 385 (or 386) the emperor Valentinian II and his mother Justina, along with a considerable number of [[clergy]], the [[laity]], and the military, professed Arianism.{{Sfn | Butler | 1991 | p = 408}} Conflict between Ambrose and Justina soon followed.

The Arians demanded that Valentinian allocate to them two churches in [[Milan]]: one in the city (the [[Basilica]] of the Apostles), the other in the suburbs (St Victor's).{{Sfn | Butler | 1991 | p = 408}} Ambrose refused to surrender the churches. He answered by saying that "What belongs to God, is outside the emperor's power." In this, Ambrose called on an ancient Roman principle: a temple set apart to a god became the property of that god. Ambrose now applied this ancient legal principle to the Christian churches, seeing the bishop, as a divine representative, as guardian of his god's property.{{sfn|Lietzmann|1951|pp=79-80}}

Subsequently, while Ambrose was performing the [[Liturgy of the Hours]] in the basilica, the prefect of the city came to persuade him to give it up to the Arians. Ambrose again refused. Certain deans (officers of the court) were sent to take possession of the basilica by hanging upon it imperial escutcheons.{{sfn|Butler|1991|p= 408}}{{sfn|Grieve|1911|p=799}} Instead, soldiers from the ranks the emperor had placed around the basilica began pouring into the church, assuring Ambrose of their fidelity. The escutcheons outside the church were removed, and legend says the children tore them to shreds.{{sfn|Lietzmann|1951|pp=79-80}}

Ambrose refused to surrender the basilica, and sent sharp answers back to his emperor: "If you demand my person, I am ready to submit: carry me to prison or to death, I will not resist; but I will never betray the church of Christ. I will not call upon the people to succour me; I will die at the foot of the altar rather than desert it. The tumult of the people I will not encourage: but God alone can appease it."{{sfn|Grieve|1911|p=799}} By Thursday, the emperor gave in, bitterly responding: "Soon, if Ambrose gives the orders, you will be sending me to him in chains."{{sfn|Lietzmann|1951|p= 80}}

In 386, Justina and Valentinian II received the Arian bishop [[Auxentius of Durostorum|Auxentius the younger]], and Ambrose was again ordered to hand over a church in Milan for Arian usage. Ambrose and his congregation barricaded themselves inside the church, and again the imperial order was rescinded.{{sfn|CAH|1998|page = 106}} There was an attempted kidnapping, and another attempt to arrest him and to force him to leave the city.{{sfn|Liebeschuetz|Hill|Mediolanensis|2005|p=130}} Several accusations were made, but unlike in the case of [[John Chrysostom]], no formal charges were brought. The emperor certainly had the power to do so, and probably did not solely because of Ambrose's popularity with the people and what they might do.{{sfn|Liebeschuetz|Hill|Mediolanensis|2005|p=131}}

When [[Magnus Maximus]] usurped power in [[Gaul]] (383) and was considering a descent upon Italy, Valentinian sent Ambrose to dissuade him, and the embassy was successful (384).{{sfn|Grieve|1911|p=799}} A second, later embassy was unsuccessful. Magnus Maximus entered [[Italy]] (386–387) and [[Milan]] was taken. Justina and her son fled, but Ambrose remained and had the plate of the church melted for the relief of the poor.{{sfn|Grieve|1911|p=799}}{{blockquote|After defeating the usurper Maximus at Aquileia in 388 Theodosius handed the western realm back to the young Valentinian II, the seventeen-year-old son of the forceful and hardy Pannonian general Valentinian I and his wife, the Arian Justina. Furthermore, the Eastern emperor remained in Italy for a considerable period to supervise affairs, returning to Constantinople in 391 and leaving behind the Frankish general Arbogast to keep an eye on the young emperor. By May of the following year, Arbogast's ward was dead amidst rumours of both treachery and suicide...{{sfn|Verlag|1976|pp=235-244}} }}

====Theodosius====
{{See also|Massacre of Thessalonica}}
While Ambrose was writing ''De Fide'', Theodosius published his own statement of faith in 381 in an edict establishing Nicene Christianity as the only legitimate version of the Christian faith. There is unanimity amongst scholars that this represents the emperor's own beliefs.{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=106-110}} The aftermath of the death (378) of [[Valens]] (Emperor in the East from 364 to 378) had left many questions for the church unresolved, and Theodosius' edict can be seen as an effort to begin addressing those questions.{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=108}} Theodosius' natural generosity was tempered by his pressing need to establish himself and to publicly assert his personal piety.{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=109}}

On 28 February 380, Theodosius issued the [[Edict of Thessalonica]], a decree addressed to the city of [[Constantinople]], determining that only Christians who did not support Arian views were [[Catholicity|catholic]] and could have their places of worship officially recognized as "churches".{{sfn|Errington|2006|p=217}}{{sfn|Lietzmann|1951|p=37}}{{efn|Recent scholarship has tended to reject former views that the edict was a key step in establishing Christianity as the official religion of the empire since it was aimed exclusively at Constantinople and seems to have gone largely unnoticed by contemporaries outside the capital.{{sfn|Errington|1997|pp=410–415}}{{sfn|Hebblewhite|p=82}} Nonetheless, the edict is the first known secular Roman law to positively assert a religious orthodoxy.{{sfn|Errington|2006|p=217}}}} The Edict opposed [[Arianism]], and attempted to establish unity in Christianity and to suppress heresy.{{sfn|Sáry|2019|p=73}} German ancient historian {{ill|Karl Leo Noethlichs|de}} writes that the Edict of Thessalonica was neither anti-pagan nor [[Antisemitism|antisemitic]]; it did not declare Christianity to be the official religion of the empire; and it gave no advantage to Christians over other faiths.{{sfn|Sáry|2019|pp=72–74; fn. 32, 33, 34; 77}}

Liebeschuetz and Hill indicate that it was not until after 388, during Theodosius' stay in Milan following the defeat of Maximus in 388, that Theodosius and Ambrose first met.{{sfn|Liebeschuetz|Hill|Mediolanensis|2005|p=17}} 
[[File:Anthonis van Dyck 005.jpg|thumb|''[[Saint Ambrose barring Theodosius from Milan Cathedral]]'' a "pious fiction"{{sfn|Chesnut|1981|p=245-252}} painted in 1619 by [[Anthony van Dyck]]. [[National Gallery, London]]]]
After the [[Massacre of Thessalonica]] in 390, Theodosius made an act of public penance at Ambrose's behest.{{sfn|Herrin|1987|p=64}} Ambrose was away from court during the events at Thessalonica, but after being informed of them, he wrote Theodosius a letter.{{sfn|Liebeschuetz|Hill|Mediolanensis|2005|pp=262}} In that still-existing letter, Ambrose presses for a semi-public demonstration of penitence from the emperor, telling him that, as his bishop, he will not give Theodosius communion until it is done. [[Wolf Liebeschuetz]] says "Theodosius duly complied and came to church without his imperial robes, until Christmas, when Ambrose openly admitted him to communion".{{sfn|Liebeschuetz|Hill|Mediolanensis|2005|pp=262-263}}

Formerly, some scholars credited Ambrose with having an undue influence over Emperor Theodosius I, from this period forward, prompting him toward major anti-pagan legislation beginning in February of 391.{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=331}}{{sfn|Errington|1997|p=425}}{{sfn|Curran|1998|pp=78-110}} However, this interpretation has been heavily disputed since the late-twentieth century. McLynn argues that Theodosius's anti-pagan legislation was too limited in scope for it to be of interest to the bishop.{{sfn|McLynn|1994|pp=330–333}}{{sfn|Hebblewhite|2020a|p=intro}} The fabled encounter at the door of the cathedral in Milan, with Ambrose as the mitred prelate braced, blocking Theodosius from entering, which has sometimes been seen as evidence of Ambrose' dominance over Theodosius, has been debunked by modern historians as "a pious fiction".{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=291}}{{sfn|Cameron|2011|pp=63, 64}} There was no encounter at the church door.{{sfn|Brown|1992|p=111}}{{sfn|Moorhead|2014|p=3, 13}}{{sfn|Cameron|2011|pp=60, 63, 131}}{{sfn|MacMullen|1984|p=100}} The story is a product of the imagination of [[Theodoret]], a historian of the fifth century who wrote of the events of 390 "using his own ideology to fill the gaps in the historical record".{{sfn|Washburn|2006|p=215}}

The twenty-first-century view is that Ambrose was "not a power behind the throne".{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=291}} The two men did not meet each other frequently, and documents that reveal the relationship between the two are less about personal friendship than they are about negotiations between two formidable leaders of the powerful institutions they represent: the Roman State and the Italian Church.{{sfn|McLynn|1994|pp=291–292;330–333}} Cameron says there is no evidence that Ambrose was a significant influence on the emperor.{{sfn|Cameron|2011|pp=63–64}}

For centuries after his death, Theodosius was regarded as a champion of Christian orthodoxy who decisively stamped out paganism. This view was recorded by Theodoret, who is recognized as an unreliable historian, in the century following their deaths.{{sfn|Errington|1997|p=409}} Theodosius's predecessors [[Constantine I|Constantine]] ({{reign | 306 | 337}}), [[Constantius II|Constantius]] ({{reign | 337 | 361|show=none}}), and [[Valens]] had all been [[semi-Arian]]s. Therefore, it fell to the orthodox Theodosius to receive from Christian literary tradition most of the credit for the final triumph of Christianity.{{sfn|Cameron|2011|p=74 (and note 177)}} Modern scholars see this as an interpretation of history by orthodox Christian writers more than as a representation of actual history.{{sfn|Nicholson|2018|pp=1482, 1484}}{{sfn|Errington|2006|pp=248–249}}{{sfn|Cameron|2011|p=74}}{{sfn|Hebblewhite|loc=chapter 8}} The view of a pious Theodosius submitting meekly to the authority of the church, represented by Ambrose, is part of the myth that evolved within a generation of their deaths.{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=292}}

===Later years and death===
[[File:Sant'Ambrogio Cript in Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio, Milan.jpg|thumb|240px|Embossed silver urn with the body of Ambrose (with white vestments) in the crypt of Sant'Ambrose, with the skeletons of Gervase and Protase|alt=]]
In April 393 [[Arbogast (magister militum)|Arbogast]] (''magister militum'' of the West) and his puppet Emperor [[Eugenius]] marched into Italy to consolidate their position against [[Theodosius I]] and his son, [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]], now appointed Augustus to govern the western portion of the empire. Arbogast and Eugenius courted Ambrose's support by very obliging letters; but before they arrived at Milan, he had retired to Bologna, where he assisted at the [[Translation (relic)|translation of the relics]] of [[Saints Vitalis and Agricola]]. From there he went to Florence, where he remained until Eugenius withdrew from Milan to meet Theodosius in the [[Battle of the Frigidus]] in early September 394.<ref>{{Cite web |url= https://www.bartleby.com/210/12/071.html |title= Saint Ambrose, Bishop and Confessor, Doctor of the Church. December 7. Rev. Alban Butler. 1866. Volume XII: December. The Lives of the Saints |website=www.bartleby.com |access-date=10 June 2019}}</ref>

Soon after acquiring the undisputed possession of the [[Roman Empire]], Theodosius died at Milan in 395, and Ambrose gave the eulogy.{{sfn|Norwich|1989|p=116}} Two years later (4 April 397) Ambrose also died. He was succeeded as bishop of Milan by [[Simplician]].{{sfn|Grieve|1911|p=799}} Ambrose's body may still be viewed in the [[Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio|church of Saint Ambrogio]] in Milan, where it has been continuously venerated&nbsp;– along with the bodies identified in his time as being those of [[Gervasius and Protasius|Saints Gervase and Protase]].

Ambrose is [[General Roman Calendar|remembered]] in the calendar of the [[Roman Rite]] of the [[Catholic Church]] on 7 December, and is also honoured in the [[Calendar of saints (Church of England)|Church of England]] and in the [[Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church)|Episcopal Church]] on 7 December.<ref>{{Cite web |title= The Calendar |url=https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar |access-date= 27 March 2021 |website= The Church of England |language=en}}
</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bEq7DwAAQBAJ |title=Lesser Feasts and Fasts 2018 |date=17 December 2019 |publisher=Church Publishing, Inc. |isbn=978-1-64065-235-4 |language=en}}</ref>