Editing Algerian War (section)

== Background ==
{{Main|French Algeria|French colonial empire}}

=== Conquest of Algeria ===
{{Main|French conquest of Algeria|Pacification of Algeria}}
[[File:Vernet-Combat de Somah.jpg|thumb|Battle of Somah in 1836|left]]

The decision to capture Algiers was made by [[Charles X of France|Charles X]] and his ministers in January 1830. An invasion had already been discussed in 1827 in part in reaction to [[Barbary pirates]] activities and their ransoming of Christian captives and slaves, and the refusal of Marseilles merchants to pay their debts to the [[Dey]] of Algiers. By early 1830 however, the real motive was to distract and assuage with a foreign conquest French opinion hostile to the increasingly authoritarian king.<ref>Philip Mansel, ''Paris Between Empires - Monarchy and Revolutions 1814–1852'', St. Martin's Press, New York, 2003 (2001), pp. 231–232.</ref>

On the pretext of a slight to their consul, the [[Invasion of Algiers (1830)|French attacked and captured Algiers]] in June 1830. In following years the conquest spread to the interior.<ref name=Horne/>{{rp|}} Directed by [[Thomas Robert Bugeaud|Marshall Bugeaud]], who became the first [[colonial heads of Algeria|Governor-General of Algeria]], the conquest was violent and marked by a "[[scorched earth]]" policy designed to reduce the power of the native rulers, the [[Dey]], including massacres, mass rapes and other atrocities.<ref name=Grandmaison>{{cite news|author=Olivier Le Cour Grandmaison|title=Torture in Algeria: Past Acts That Haunt France – Liberty, Equality and Colony|work=[[Le Monde diplomatique]]|date=June 2001|url=http://mondediplo.com/2001/06/11torture2|author-link=Olivier Le Cour Grandmaison|access-date=17 January 2007|archive-date=2 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200602124929/https://mondediplo.com/2001/06/11torture2|url-status=live}} (quoting [[Alexis de Tocqueville]], ''Travail sur l'Algérie'' in ''Œuvres complètes'', Paris, Gallimard, [[Bibliothèque de la Pléiade]], 1991, pp 704 and 705.{{in lang|en|fr}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first= Dominik J. |last= Schaller |editor1-first= Donald |editor1-last= Bloxham |editor2-first= A. Dirk |editor2-last= Moses |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=bEcTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA356 |title= The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies |publisher= Oxford University Press |date= 2010 |page= 356 |chapter= Genocide and Mass Violence in the 'Heart of Darkness': Africa in the Colonial Period |isbn= 978-0-19-923211-6}}</ref> Between 500,000 and 1,000,000, from approximately 3 million Algerians, were killed in the first three decades of the conquest.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jalata|first=Asafa|title=Phases of Terrorism in the Age of Globalization: From Christopher Columbus to Osama bin Laden|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SCjxCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA92|date=2016|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US|isbn=978-1-137-55234-1|pages=92–3|quote=Within the first three decades, the French military massacred between half a million to one million from approximately three million Algerian people.|access-date=7 December 2017|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160439/https://books.google.com/books?id=SCjxCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA92#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Kiernan2007">{{cite book|last=Kiernan|first=Ben|author-link=Ben Kiernan|title=Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur|url=https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326|url-access=registration|year=2007|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-10098-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326/page/364 364]–ff|quote=In Algeria, colonization and genocidal massacres proceeded in tandem. From 1830 to 1847, its European settler population quadrupled to 104,000. Of the native Algerian population of approximately 3 million in 1830, about 500,000 to 1 million perished in the first three decades of French conquest.}}</ref> French losses from 1830 to 1851 were 3,336 [[killed in action]] and 92,329 dying in hospital.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Making of Contemporary Algeria, 1830-1987|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4nXl7h8i5scC&pg=PA42|isbn=9780521524322|last1=Bennoune|first1=Mahfoud|date=2002-08-22|publisher=Cambridge University Press|access-date=7 December 2017|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160440/https://books.google.com/books?id=4nXl7h8i5scC&pg=PA42#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1834, Algeria became a French military colony. It was declared by the [[French Constitution of 1848|Constitution of 1848]] to be an integral part of France and was divided into three [[French departments|departments]]: [[Alger (department)|Alger]], [[Oran (department)|Oran]] and [[Constantine (departement)|Constantine]]. Many French and other Europeans (Spanish, Italians, Maltese and others) later settled in Algeria.

Under the [[Second French Empire|Second Empire]] (1852–1871), the ''[[Indigénat|Code de l'indigénat]]'' (Indigenous Code) was implemented by the ''[[sénatus-consulte]]'' of 14 July 1865. It allowed Muslims to apply for full French citizenship, a measure that few took since it involved renouncing the right to be governed by ''[[sharia]]'' law in personal matters and was widely considered to be [[apostasy]]. Its first article stipulated:

<blockquote> The indigenous Muslim is French; however, he will continue to be subjected to Muslim law. He may be admitted to serve in the army (armée de terre) and the navy (armée de mer). He may be called to functions and civil employment in Algeria. He may, on his demand, be admitted to enjoy the rights of a French citizen; in this case, he is subjected to the political and civil laws of France.<ref>"L'indigène musulman est français; néanmoins il continuera à être régi par la loi musulmane. Il peut être admis à servir dans les armées de terre et de mer. Il peut être appelé à des fonctions et emplois civils en Algérie. Il peut, sur sa demande, être admis à jouir des droits de citoyen français; dans ce cas, il est régi par les lois civiles et politiques de la France" (article 1 of the 1865 [[Code de l'indigénat]])</ref></blockquote>

[[File:Arrival of Marshal Randon in Algier-Ernest-Francis Vacherot mg 5120.jpg|thumb|Arrival of Marshal [[Jacques Louis Randon|Randon]] in Algiers in 1857|left]]

Prior to 1870, fewer than 200 demands were registered by Muslims and 152 by Jewish Algerians.<ref name="Indigenous">[http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article527 le code de l'indigénat dans l'Algérie coloniale] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070314151739/http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article527 |date=2007-03-14 }}, ''[[Human Rights League (France)|Human Rights League]]'' (LDH), March 6, 2005 – URL accessed on January 17, 2007 {{in lang|fr}}</ref> The 1865 decree was then modified by the 1870 [[Crémieux Decree]], which granted [[French nationality]] to Jews living in one of the three Algerian departments. In 1881, the ''Code de l'Indigénat'' made the discrimination official by creating specific penalties for ''indigènes'' and organising the seizure or appropriation of their lands.<ref name="Indigenous"/>

During [[World War II]], equality of rights was proclaimed by the ''ordonnance'' of 7 March 1944 and later confirmed by the ''loi Lamine Guèye'' of 7 May 1946, which granted French citizenship to all subjects of France's territories and overseas departments, and by the 1946 Constitution. The Law of 20 September 1947 granted French citizenship to all Algerian subjects, who were not required to renounce their Muslim personal status.<ref>Gianluca P. Parolin, ''Citizenship in the Arab World: Kin, Religion and Nation'', Amsterdam University Press, 2009, pp. 94–95</ref>{{Dubious|Muslim Algerians did not have full rights, and their voting was both diluted and interfered with. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algerian_Assembly_election,_1948 and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_legislative_election,_1951_(Algeria) |date=November 2017}}

Algeria was unique to France because unlike all other overseas possessions acquired by France during the 19th century, Algeria was considered and legally classified to be an integral part of France.

=== Algerian Nationalism ===
{{Main|Algerian nationalism|Sétif and Guelma massacre}}
{{Further|1920 Algerian Political Rights Petition}}
[[File:Algier1954.ogg|thumb|1954 film about French Algeria|left]]
Both Muslim and European Algerians took part in World War II and fought for France. Algerian Muslims served as ''[[Tirailleur#Colonial period|tirailleurs]]'' (such regiments were created as early as 1842<ref>[http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article297 les tirailleurs, bras armé de la France coloniale] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070314151757/http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article297 |date=2007-03-14 }}, ''[[Human Rights League (France)|Human Rights League]]'' (LDH), August 25, 2004 – URL accessed on January 17, 2007 {{in lang|fr}}</ref>) and [[spahi]]s; and French settlers as [[Zouaves]] or [[Chasseurs d'Afrique]]. US President [[Woodrow Wilson]]'s 1918 [[Fourteen Points]] had the fifth read: "A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the principle that in determining all such questions of [[sovereignty]] the interests of the populations concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the government whose title is to be determined." Some Algerian intellectuals, dubbed ''[[oulémas]]'', began to nurture the desire for independence or, at the very least, autonomy and [[self-rule]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/doc31.htm|title=Interpretation of President Wilson's Fourteen Points|access-date=2020-01-21|archive-date=1997-05-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970501050510/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/doc31.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Within that context, [[Khalid ibn Hashim]], a grandson of [[Emir Abdelkader|Abd el-Kadir]], spearheaded the resistance against the French in the first half of the 20th century and was a member of the directing committee of the [[French Communist Party]]. In 1926, he founded the ''[[Étoile Nord-Africaine]]'' ("North African Star"), to which [[Messali Hadj]], also a member of the Communist Party and of its affiliated trade union, the [[Confédération générale du travail unitaire]] (CGTU), joined the following year.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VlR8YCE8lkQC&q=the+Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration+g%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale+du+travail+unitaire+(CGTU),+joined+the+following+year&pg=PA352|title=Biographical Dictionary of European Labor Leaders|last=Lane|first=A. Thomas|date=1995-12-01|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313264566|language=en}}</ref>

The North African Star broke from the Communist Party in 1928, before being dissolved in 1929 at Paris's demand. Amid growing discontent from the Algerian population, the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]] (1871–1940) acknowledged some demands, and the [[Popular Front (France)|Popular Front]] initiated the [[Blum-Viollette proposal]] in 1936, which was supposed to enlighten the Indigenous Code by giving French citizenship to a small number of Muslims. The ''[[pieds-noirs]]'' (Algerians of European origin) violently demonstrated against it and the North African Party also opposed it, leading to its abandonment. The pro-independence party was dissolved in 1937, and its leaders were charged with the illegal reconstitution of a dissolved league, leading to Messali Hadj's 1937 founding of the ''[[Algerian People's Party|Parti du peuple algérien]]'' (Algerian People's Party, PPA), which no longer espoused full independence but only extensive autonomy. This new party was dissolved in 1939. Under [[Vichy France]], the French State attempted to abrogate the Crémieux Decree to suppress the Jews' French citizenship, but the measure was never implemented.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}

On the other hand, the nationalist leader [[Ferhat Abbas]] founded the Algerian Popular Union (''Union populaire algérienne'') in 1938. In 1943, Abbas wrote the Algerian People's Manifesto (''Manifeste du peuple algérien''). Arrested after the [[Sétif and Guelma massacre]] of May 8, 1945, when the French Army and pieds-noirs mobs killed between 6,000 and 30,000 Algerians,<ref name="setif">{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/fr/document/le-cas-de-sa-tif-kherrata-guelma-mai-1945|title=Le cas de Sétif-Kherrata-Guelma (Mai 1945)|last=Peyroulou|first=Jean-Pierre|date=March 21, 2008|publisher=Violence de masse et Résistance - Réseau de recherche|access-date=13 November 2019|archive-date=9 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180409043956/https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/fr/document/le-cas-de-sa-tif-kherrata-guelma-mai-1945|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Horne/>{{rp|27}} Abbas founded the [[Democratic Union of the Algerian Manifesto]] (UDMA) in 1946 and was elected as a deputy. Founded in 1954, the [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|National Liberation Front]] (FLN) created an armed wing, the ''[[Armée de Libération Nationale]]'' (National Liberation Army) to engage in an [[armed struggle]] against French authority. Many Algerian soldiers who served for the French Army in the [[First Indochina War]] had strong sympathy for the Vietnamese fighting against France and took up their experience to support the ALN.<ref>{{cite web |author=Ngoc H. Huynh |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1241&context=curej |title=The Time-Honored Friendship: A History of Vietnamese-Algerian Relations (1946-2015) Relations (1946-2015) |publisher=University of Pennsylvania |date=5 January 2016 |access-date=26 May 2020 |archive-date=10 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200810204807/https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1241&context=curej |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://indochine.uqam.ca/en/historical-dictionary/39-algerian-war.html|title=UQAM &#124; Guerre d'Indochine &#124; ALGERIAN WAR|access-date=26 May 2020|archive-date=25 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725041101/http://indochine.uqam.ca/en/historical-dictionary/39-algerian-war.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

France, which had just lost [[French Indochina]], was determined not to lose the next colonial war, particularly in its oldest and nearest major colony, which was regarded as a part of [[Metropolitan France]] (rather than a colony), by French law.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/colonial_empires_after_the_wardecolonization|title=Colonial Empires after the War/Decolonization &#124; International Encyclopedia of the First World War (WW1)|access-date=21 January 2020|archive-date=9 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150509014941/https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/colonial_empires_after_the_wardecolonization|url-status=live}}</ref>