Editing Albert Camus (section)

==Biography==
===Early years and education===
[[File:Algiers The University (GRI).jpg|thumb|alt=A postcard showing the University of Algiers|A 20th-century postcard of the [[University of Algiers]]]]
Albert Camus was born on 7 November 1913 in a working-class neighbourhood in Mondovi (present-day [[Dréan]]), in [[French Algeria]]. His mother, Catherine Hélène Camus ({{née|Sintès}}), was French with [[Balearic Islands|Balearic]] Spanish ancestry. She was deaf and illiterate.{{sfn|Carroll|2013|p=50}} He never knew his father, Lucien Camus, a poor French agricultural worker killed in action while serving with a [[Zouave]] regiment in October 1914, during [[World War I]]. Camus, his mother, and other relatives lived without many basic material possessions during his childhood in the [[Belouizdad, Algiers|Belcourt]] section of [[Algiers]]. Camus was a second-generation French inhabitant of Algeria, which was a French territory from 1830 until 1962. His paternal grandfather, along with many others of his generation, had moved to Algeria for a better life during the first decades of the 19th century. Hence, he was called a {{lang|fr|[[pied-noir]]}} – a slang term for people of French and other European descent born in Algeria. His identity and poor background had a substantial effect on his later life.{{sfnm|1a1=Sherman|1y=2009|1p=10|2a1=Hayden|2y=2016|2p=7|3a1=Lottman|3y=1979|3p=11|4a1=Carroll|4y=2007|4pp=2–3}} Nevertheless, Camus was a French citizen and enjoyed more rights than [[Arab]] and [[Berbers|Berber]] Algerians under {{lang|fr|[[indigénat]]}}.{{sfn|Carroll|2007|pp=2–3}} During his childhood, he developed a love for [[association football|football]] and [[swimming]].{{sfn|Sherman|2009|p=11}}

Under the influence of his teacher Louis Germain, Camus gained a scholarship in 1924 to continue his studies at a prestigious [[lyceum]] (secondary school) near Algiers.{{sfn|Hayden|2016|p=8}} Germain immediately noticed his lively intelligence and his desire to learn. In middle school, he gave Camus free lessons to prepare him for the 1924 scholarship competition – despite the fact that his grandmother had a plan for him to be a manual worker so that he could immediately contribute to the maintenance of the family. Camus maintained great gratitude and affection towards Louis Germain throughout his life and he dedicated his speech for accepting the Nobel Prize to Germain. Having received the news of the awarding of the prize, he wrote: 

<blockquote>But when I heard the news, my first thought, after my mother, was of you. Without you, without the affectionate hand you extended to the small poor child that I was, without your teaching and example, none of all this would have happened.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Albert Camus Wins the Nobel Prize & Sends a Letter of Gratitude to His Elementary School Teacher (1957) |last=Camus |first=Albert |url= https://www.openculture.com/2014/05/albert-camus-sends-a-letter-of-gratitude-to-his-elementary-school-teacher-1957.html |access-date=7 January 2024 |language=en}}</ref></blockquote>

In a letter dated 30 April 1959, Germain lovingly reciprocated the warm feelings towards his former pupil, calling him "my little Camus".<ref>{{Cite web |title=I embrace you with all my heart – Letters of Note |url= https://lettersofnote.com/2013/11/07/i-embrace-you-with-all-my-heart/ |date=7 November 2013 |website=lettersofnote.com |access-date=7 January 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Lettre de Monsieur Germain à Albert Camus |trans-title=Letter of Mister Germain to Albert Camus |url=https://compagnieaffable.com/2015/10/04/lettre-de-monsieur-germain-a-albert-camus/ |website=compagnieaffable.com |date=4 October 2015 |access-date=9 January 2024 |language=fr}}</ref>

Camus played as [[Goalkeeper (association football)|goalkeeper]] for the [[Racing Universitaire d'Alger]] junior team from 1928 to 1930.{{sfn|Clarke|2009|p=488}} The sense of team spirit, fraternity, and common purpose appealed to him enormously.{{sfn|Lattal|1995}} In match reports, he was often praised for playing with passion and courage. Any football ambitions, however, disappeared when he contracted tuberculosis.{{sfn|Clarke|2009|p=488}} Camus later drew parallels between football, human existence, morality, and personal identity. For him, the simplistic morality of football contradicted the complicated morality imposed by authorities such as the state and church.{{sfn|Clarke|2009|p=488}}

In 1930, at the age of 17, Camus was diagnosed with [[tuberculosis]].{{sfn|Sherman|2009|p=11}} Because it is a transmitted disease, he moved out of his home and stayed with his uncle Gustave Acault, a butcher, who influenced the young Camus. It was at that time he turned to philosophy, with the mentoring of his philosophy teacher [[Jean Grenier]]. He was impressed by [[ancient Greek philosopher]]s and [[Friedrich Nietzsche]].{{sfn|Sherman|2009|p=11}} During that time, he was only able to study part time. To earn money, he took odd jobs, including as a private tutor, car parts clerk, and assistant at the Meteorological Institute.{{sfn|Hayden|2016|p=9}}

In 1933, Camus enrolled at the [[University of Algiers]] and completed his ''[[Licentiate (degree)|licence de philosophie]]'' ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]]) in 1936 after presenting his thesis on [[Plotinus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Sherman|2009|p=11|ps=: Camus's thesis was titled "Rapports de l'hellénisme et du christianisme à travers les oeuvres de Plotin et de saint Augustin" ('Relationship of Greek and Christian Thought in Plotinus and St. Augustine') for his ''diplôme d'études supérieures'' (roughly equivalent to an [[Master of Arts|MA]] thesis).}}</ref> Camus developed an interest in early Christian philosophers, but Nietzsche and [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] had paved the way towards [[Philosophical pessimism|pessimism]] and atheism. Camus also studied novelist-philosophers such as [[Stendhal]], [[Herman Melville]], [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]], and [[Franz Kafka]].{{sfn|Simpson|2019|loc=Background and Influences}} That same year he met Simone Hié, then a partner of Camus's friend, who later became his first wife.{{sfn|Hayden|2016|p=9}}

===Formative years===
In 1934, Camus was in a relationship with Simone Hié.{{sfnm|1a1=Cohn|1y=1986|1p=30|2a1=Hayden|2y=2016|p=9}} Simone had an addiction to [[morphine]], a drug she used to ease her menstrual pains. His uncle Gustave did not approve of the relationship, but Camus married Hié to help her fight the addiction. He subsequently discovered she was in a relationship with her doctor at the same time and the couple later divorced.{{sfn|Hayden|2016|p=9}}

Camus joined the [[French Communist Party]] (PCF) in early 1935. He saw it as a way to "fight inequalities between Europeans and 'natives' in Algeria", even though he was not a [[Marxist]]. He explained: "We might see communism as a springboard and asceticism that prepares the ground for more spiritual activities." Camus left the PCF a year later.{{sfnm|1a1=Todd|1y=2000|1pp=249–250|2a1=Sherman|2y=2009|2p=12}} In 1936, the independence-minded [[Algerian Communist Party]] (PCA) was founded, and Camus joined it after his mentor Grenier advised him to do so. Camus's main role within the PCA was to organise the {{lang|fr|Théâtre du Travail}} ('Workers' Theatre'). Camus was also close to the {{lang|fr|Parti du Peuple Algérien}} ([[Algerian People's Party]] [PPA]), which was a moderate anti-colonialist/nationalist party. As tensions in the [[interwar period]] escalated, the [[Stalinist]] PCA and PPA broke ties. Camus was expelled from the PCA for refusing to toe the party line. This series of events sharpened his belief in human dignity. Camus's mistrust of bureaucracies that aimed for efficiency instead of justice grew. He continued his involvement with theatre and renamed his group {{lang|fr|Théâtre de l'Equipe}} ('Theatre of the Team'). Some of his scripts were the basis for his later novels.{{sfn|Hayden|2016|pp=10–11}}

In 1938, Camus began working for the leftist newspaper {{lang|fr|[[Alger républicain]]}} (founded by [[Pascal Pia]]), as he had strong anti-fascist feelings, and the rise of fascist regimes in Europe was worrying him. By then, Camus had also developed strong feelings against authoritarian [[colonialism]] as he witnessed the harsh treatment of the [[Arab-Berber|Arabs]] and Berbers by French authorities. {{lang|fr|Alger républicain}} was banned in 1940 and Camus flew to Paris to take a new job at {{lang|fr|[[Paris-Soir]]}} as layout editor. In Paris, he almost completed his "first cycle" of works dealing with the absurd and the meaningless: the novel ''L'Étranger'' (''The Outsider'' [UK] or [[The Stranger (Camus novel)|''The Stranger'']] [US]), the philosophical essay ''Le Mythe de Sisyphe'' (''[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]''), and the play ''[[Caligula (play)|Caligula]]''. Each cycle consisted of a novel, an essay, and a theatrical play.{{sfnm|1a1=Hayden|1y=2016|1pp=12-13|2a1=Sherman|2y=2009|2pp=12–13}}

===World War II, Resistance and ''Combat''===
Soon after Camus moved to Paris, the outbreak of [[World War II]] began to affect France. Camus volunteered to join the army but was not accepted because he had once had tuberculosis. As the Germans were marching towards Paris, Camus fled. He was laid off from {{lang|fr|Paris-Soir}} and ended up in [[Lyon]], where he married pianist and mathematician [[Francine Faure]] on 3 December 1940.{{sfn|Hayden|2016|pp=13–14}} Camus and Faure moved back to Algeria ([[Oran]]), where he taught in primary schools.{{sfn|Sherman|2009|p=13}} Because of his tuberculosis, he moved to the French Alps on medical advice. There he began writing his second cycle of works, this time dealing with revolt – a novel, ''La Peste'' (''[[The Plague (novel)|The Plague]]''), and a play, ''Le Malentendu'' (''[[The Misunderstanding]]''). By 1943 he was known because of his earlier work. He returned to Paris, where he met and became friends with [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]. He also became part of a circle of intellectuals, which included [[Simone de Beauvoir]] and [[André Breton]]. Among them was the actress [[María Casares]], who later had an affair with Camus.{{sfnm|1a1=Hayden|1y=2016|p=14|2a1=Sherman|2y=2009|2p=13}}

Camus took an active role in the underground resistance movement against the Germans during the [[Occupation of France|French Occupation]]. Upon his arrival in Paris, he started working as a journalist and editor of the banned newspaper ''[[Combat (newspaper)|Combat]]''. Camus used a pseudonym for his ''Combat'' articles and used false ID cards to avoid being captured. He continued writing for the paper after the liberation of France,{{sfnm|1a1=Hayden|1y=2016|2a1=Sherman|2y=2009|2p=23}} composing almost daily editorials under his real name.{{sfn|Carroll|2013|p=278}} During that period he composed four ''[[Resistance, Rebellion, and Death|Lettres à un Ami Allemand]]'' ('Letters to a German Friend'), explaining why resistance was necessary.{{sfn|Hayden|2016|p=15}}

===Post–World War II===
{{external media| float = right| width = 230px | video1 = [https://www.c-span.org/video/?97122-1/albert-camus-life Presentation by Olivier Todd on ''Albert Camus: A Life'', 15 December 1997], [[C-SPAN]]}}

After the War, Camus lived in Paris with Faure, who gave birth to twins, Catherine and Jean, in 1945.{{sfn|Willsher|2011}} Camus was now a celebrated writer known for his role in the Resistance. He gave lectures at various universities in the United States and Latin America during two separate trips. He also visited Algeria once more, only to leave disappointed by the continued oppressive colonial policies, which he had warned about many times. During this period he completed the second cycle of his work, with the book {{lang|fr|L'Homme révolté}} (''[[The Rebel (book)|The Rebel]]''). Camus attacked [[totalitarian]] communism while advocating [[libertarian socialism]] and [[anarcho-syndicalism]].{{sfn|Hayden|2016|p=17}} Upsetting many of his colleagues and contemporaries in France with its rejection of [[communism]], the book brought about the final split between Camus and Sartre. His relations with the Marxist Left deteriorated further during the [[Algerian War]].{{sfn|Hayden|2016|pp=16–17}}

Camus was a strong supporter of [[European integration]] in various marginal organisations working towards that end.{{sfn|Hayden|2016|p=18}} In 1944, he founded the {{lang|fr|Comité français pour la féderation européenne}} ('French Committee for the European Federation' [CFFE]), declaring that Europe "can only evolve along the path of economic progress, democracy, and peace if the nation-states become a federation."{{sfn|Hayden|2016|p=18}} In 1947–48, he founded the {{lang|fr|Groupes de Liaison Internationale}} (GLI), a trade union movement in the context of revolutionary [[syndicalism]] ({{lang|fr|syndicalisme révolutionnaire}}).{{sfnm|1a1=Todd|1y=2000|1pp=249–250|2a1=Schaffner|2y=2006|2p=107}} His main aim was to express the positive side of [[surrealism]] and existentialism, rejecting the negativity and the [[nihilism]] of André Breton. Camus also raised his voice against the [[Soviet invasion of Hungary]] and the totalitarian tendencies of [[Francisco Franco|Franco]]'s regime in Spain.{{sfn|Hayden|2016|p=18}}

Camus had numerous affairs, particularly an irregular and eventually public affair with the Spanish-born actress [[María Casares]], with whom he had extensive correspondence.{{sfnm|1a1=Sherman|1y=2009|1pp=14–17|2a1=Zaretsky|2y=2018}} Faure did not take this affair lightly. She had a mental breakdown and needed hospitalisation in the early 1950s. Camus, who felt guilty, withdrew from public life and was slightly depressed for some time.{{sfn|Sherman|2009|p=17}}

In 1957, Camus received the news that he was to be awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]. This came as a shock to him; he anticipated [[André Malraux]] would win the award. At age 44, he was the second-youngest recipient of the prize, after [[Rudyard Kipling]], who was 41. After this he began working on his autobiography {{lang|fr|Le Premier Homme}} (''[[The First Man]]'') in an attempt to examine "moral learning". He also turned to the theatre once more.{{sfn|Hayden|2016|p=19}} Financed by the money he received with his Nobel Prize, he adapted and directed for the stage Dostoyevsky's novel ''[[Demons (Dostoyevsky novel)|Demons]]''. The play opened in January 1959 at the [[Théâtre Antoine-Simone Berriau|Antoine Theatre]] in Paris and was a critical success.{{sfn|Sherman|2009|p=18}}

[[File:Ecrits historiques et politiques, Simone Weil.jpg|thumb|]] 
[[File:Simone_Weil_04_(cropped).png|thumb|left|[[Simone Weil]]]]
During these years, he published posthumously the works of the philosopher [[Simone Weil]], in the series "Espoir" ('Hope') which he had founded for [[Éditions Gallimard]]. Weil had great influence on his philosophy,<ref name = "Basset">
{{cite book
|author=Jeanyves GUÉRIN, Guy BASSET
|title=Dictionnaire Albert Camus
|year=2013
|isbn= 978-2-221-14017-8 
|publisher = Groupe Robert Laffont}}
</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bunn |first=Philip D. |date=2 January 2022 |title=Transcendent Rebellion: The Influence of Simone Weil on Albert Camus' Esthetics |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10457097.2021.1997529 |journal=Perspectives on Political Science |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=35–43 |doi=10.1080/10457097.2021.1997529 |s2cid=242044336 |issn=1045-7097}}</ref> since he saw her writings as an "antidote" to [[nihilism]].<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://academic.oup.com/litthe/article-abstract/20/3/286/1021593|title=A Political Theology of the Absurd? Albert Camus and Simone Weil on Social Transformation|first=Stefan|last=Skrimshire|date=1 September 2006|journal=Literature and Theology|volume=20|issue=3|pages=286–300|via=Silverchair|doi=10.1093/litthe/fri069}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/29937662|title=Albert Camus, Simone Weil and the Absurd|first=Rik Van|last=Nieuwenhove|date=8 April 2005|journal=Irish Theological Quarterly|volume=70|issue=4|pages=343–354|doi=10.1177/002114000507000403 |via=www.academia.edu}}</ref> Camus described her as "the only great spirit of our times".<ref name = "Hellman">
{{cite book
|author=John Hellman
|title=Simone Weil: An Introduction to Her Thought
|pages = 1–23
|year=1983
|isbn=978-0-88920-121-7 
|publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press}}
</ref>

=== Death ===
[[File:20041113-002 Lourmarin Tombstone Albert Camus.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Photograph of Camus's gravestone|Albert Camus's gravestone]] [[File:Camus Monument in Villeblevin France 17-august-2003.4.JPG|thumb|The bronze plaque on the monument to Camus in the town of [[Villeblevin]], France. It reads: "From the General Council of the Yonne Department, in homage to the writer Albert Camus whose remains lay in vigil at the Villeblevin town hall on the night of 4 to 5 January 1960"]] [[File:Camus Monument in Villeblevin France 17-august-2003.1.JPG|thumb|alt=A photograph of the monument to Camus built in Villeblevin.|The monument to Camus built in [[Villeblevin]], where he died in a car crash on 4 January 1960]]

Camus died on 4 January 1960 at the age of 46, in a car accident near [[Sens]], in Le Grand Fossard in the small town of [[Villeblevin]]. He had spent the New Year's holiday of 1960 at his house in [[Lourmarin]], Vaucluse with his family and his publisher [[Michel Gallimard]] of [[Éditions Gallimard]], along with Gallimard's wife, Janine, and daughter, Anne. Camus's wife and children went back to Paris by train on 2 January, but Camus decided to return in Gallimard's luxurious [[Facel Vega FV|Facel Vega FV2]]. The car crashed into a [[plane tree]] on a long straight stretch of the Route nationale 5 (now the [[Route nationale 6|RN 6]] or D606). Camus, who was in the passenger seat, died instantly, while Gallimard died five days later. Janine and Anne Gallimard escaped without injuries.{{sfnm|1a1=Sherman|1y=2009|1p=19|2a1=Simpson|2y=2019|2loc=Life}}

144 pages of a handwritten manuscript entitled ''Le premier Homme'' ('[[The First Man]]') were found in the wreckage. Camus had predicted that this unfinished novel based on his childhood in Algeria would be his finest work.{{sfn|Willsher|2011}} Camus was buried in the Lourmarin Cemetery, Vaucluse, France, where he had lived.{{sfn|Bloom|2009|p=52}} Jean-Paul Sartre read a eulogy, paying tribute to Camus's heroic "stubborn humanism".{{sfn|Simpson|2019|loc= Life}} [[William Faulkner]] wrote his obituary, saying, "When the door shut for him he had already written on this side of it that which every artist who also carries through life with him that one same foreknowledge and hatred of death is hoping to do: I was here."<ref>{{Cite magazine |title=Without God or Reason |date=1 January 2021 |magazine=[[Commonweal (magazine)|Commonweal]] |url=https://www.commonwealmagazine.org/without-god-or-reason |last=Jensen |first=Morten Høi |access-date=2 April 2022}}</ref>