Editing Agathocles of Syracuse (section)

==Biography==
Agathocles was a son of Carcinus, who came from [[Rhegium]]. Carcinus was expelled from his hometown, so he migrated to [[Thermae Himeraeae]] and married a local citizen woman. Thermae, which was located on the north coast of Sicily, belonged to the western part of the island, which was under [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] control. The couple had two sons, [[Antander]] and Agathocles. In 343 BC, when Agathocles was around eighteen years old, the family re-settled in Syracuse. Carcinus had answered a call from the commander [[Timoleon]], which had overthrown the tyrannical regime of [[Dionysius II of Syracuse|Dionysius II]]. Timoleon sought new citizens for the city, which had been depopulated by the civil wars. Thus, Carcinus and Agathocles acquired Syracusan citizenship. According to the sources, Carcinus was a potter and Agathocles followed him in his profession. Modern historians generally argue that he must have been a wealthy man who owned a pottery workshop.{{sfn|Berve|1953|p=22}}{{sfn|Meister|1984|p=385}}{{sfn|Lehmler|2005|p=37}} In later times, Agathocles frequently advertised his lower class origins and used them as part of his self-presentation as a ruler, since performative modesty and presenting himself as a [[man of the people]] would be important parts of his persona.{{sfn|Agostinetti|2008}}

Agathocles began his military career during Timoleon's rule. He initially served as a soldier and then as an officer. Later, after Timoleon's death in 337 BC, Agathocles participated in an expedition against [[Agrigento|Acragas]] and began a relationship with the general, Damas, who promoted him to [[chiliarch]]. After Damas' death, Agathocles married his widow. This made him one of the richest men in Syracuse, which gave him a good platform to begin his political ascent.{{sfn|Berve|1953|p=22}}

After Timoleon's death, Syracuse descended into the traditional conflict between democrats and oligarchs. The oligarchs had the upper hand and ruled the city as a club, called "the Six Hundred." Agathocles' elder brother, Antander, was elected to a generalship, during this period, so he must have had good relationships with members of the ruling circle. Agathocles, on the other hand, spoke in the people's assembly and placed himself on the side of the opposition democrats, but he was unable to overcome their power. After a successful campaign to defend [[Crotone|Croton]] in southern Italy from the [[Bruttii]], he denied an award for bravery which he felt he had earnt.{{sfn|Berve|1953|p=23}} After this, he openly opposed the government and openly accused the leading oligarchs, Sosistratus and Heracleides, of seeking to become tyrants. These accusations were not successful and the two oligarchs solidified their power. Agathocles' situation in Syracuse was then untenable and he declared that he was compelled to leave the city. This does not necessarily mean that he was formally exiled.{{sfn|Consolo Langher|2000|pp=24-31}}

=== Double exile ===
Agathocles went to southern Italy, where he led the life of a mercenary captain. At the same time, he built up an independent power base, as preparation for a return to Syracuse. His first military effort was a failure, however: he attempted to bring the major city of [[Crotone|Croton]] in [[Calabria]] under his control by force, probably in alliance with the local democrats, but he was completely defeated and had to flee with his surviving followers to [[Taranto|Tarentum]]. The Tarentines accepted him into their mercenary forces, but they distrusted him because of his ambition and plots, which led to his dismissal. After this, he gathered together democrats who had been expelled from their cities by local oligarchs. An opportunity appeared at Rhegium, the hometown of Agathocles' father. There, the democrats were in power, but the city was attacked by forces led by the Syracusan oligarchs, who wanted to help the local oligarchs take power by force. Agathocles defeated this Syracusan expeditionary force, which destabilised Sosistratus and Heracleides' position in Syracuse and as a result they were overthrown in a coup. The democrats returned to power and drove the leading oligarchs out of Syracuse. The exiled oligarchs allied themselves with the Carthaginians. These developments allowed Agathocles to return home around 322 BC.{{sfn|Berve|1953|p=25}}{{sfn|Consolo Langher|2000|pp=29-34}}

Agathocles distinguished himself in the subsequent battles against the Carthaginians and oligarchs, but did not manage to acquire a leading position in the city. Instead, the Syracusans chose to request a commander from their [[homeland|mother city]], [[Corinth]], in accordance with a law established by Timoleon. The Corinthians sent one Acestorides, who organised an amnesty for the oligarchs, made peace with the Carthaginians, and exiled Agathocles. The radical democrats were forced out and a moderate oligarchy was established. Acestorides even attempted to have Agathocles assassinated. Agathocles established a private army, apparently funded from his own assets. He took advantage of the fact that the Syracusans were considered oppressive by other cities in Sicily and successfully presented himself as a supporter of these cities' interests against the Syracusans. He managed to take over [[Leontini]] and even led an attack on Syracuse. The situation became so tenuous for the oligarchs in Syracuse that they reached out to the Carthaginians for help.{{sfn|Berve|1953|p=27}}{{sfn|Consolo Langher|2000|p=33, 38-44}}

Agathocles outpaced the oligarchs. He negotiated with the Carthaginian commander in Sicily, Hamilcar, and convinced him to withdraw. Allegedly, they had concluded a personal agreement to support each other in establishing themselves as sole rulers of their respective cities.<ref>Justin, ''Epitome'' 22.2.5-7</ref>{{sfn|Consolo Langher|2000|pp=52-55}} After the loss of Carthaginian support, Syracuse was isolated. The citizens, who did not really wish to fight for oligarchy, agreed to allow Agathocles to return home. He swore the Syracuse "great oath", promising that he would not establish a tyranny. After that, he was elected commander in chief of the Syracusan army in 319/318 BC.{{sfn|Consolo Langher|2000|pp=41-46}}

=== Seizure of power ===
The position of Agathocles within the city of Syracuse was initially that of a regular military commander, with wide but limited powers. His title was General and Guardian of the Peace ({{langx|grc|στρατηγὸς καὶ φύλαξ τῆς εἰρήνης|strategos kai phylax tes eirenes}}).<ref>Diodoros, ''Bibliotheke'' 19.5.5</ref>{{sfn|Consolo Langher|2000|pp=41, 45}} In Syracuse, the surviving oligarchs banded together as "The Six Hundred" and continued to oppose him. Agathocles took advantage of the conflicts between the Syracusans and the non-Greek [[Sicels]] and between the rich and poor within Syracuse to overcome these opponents. On the pretext of taking military action against external enemies, he was able to gather a powerful force, which was loyal only to him, without raising suspicion.{{sfn|Consolo Langher|2000|pp=45-47}}

In 317/6 or 316/5 BC, Agathocles used this force to launch a coup. At a meeting that the leading members of the opposition party had been invited to, he accused around forty of the  oligarchs there of planning an attack on him and had them arrested and executed on the spot. His trumpeters gave the sign for battle and a general slaughter took place in the city, in which the wealthy and their supporters were the main victims. Their houses were plundered. According to Diodorus Siculus's account, over 4,000 people were killed, purely because they belonged to the upper class. More than 6,000 people escaped from the city, even though the gates had been locked. They mostly fled to Agrigentum.<ref>Diodorus ''Bibliotheke'' 19.6.4-19.8.2</ref>{{sfn|Meister|1991|p=193}}{{sfn|Consolo Langher|2000|pp=47-49}}

Finally, Agathocles called an assembly of the people, in which he presented himself as a saviour of democracy in the face of the oligarchs and announced that he would retire from his position and return to private life. His followers responded by calling on him to take over the leadership of the state. He responded that he was willing to be general once more, but only if he could hold the role without any colleagues, as General with unlimited power ({{langx|grc|στρατηγὸς αὐτοκράτωρ|strategós autokrátor}}). This was the title that the earlier ruler [[Dionysius I of Syracuse|Dionysius I]] had used as the legal basis for his tyranny.{{sfn|Berve|1953|pp=30ff}} The people elected him to this position and also entrusted him with a general "management of the city" ({{langx|grc|ἐπιμέλεια τῆς πόλεως|epiméleia tes póleos}}). After this he announced a cancellation of debts and redistribution of the land, two planks of the traditional populist programme.<ref>Diodoros, ''Bibliotheke'' 19.9.1-5</ref>{{sfn|Consolo Langher|2000|pp=49-52}}

===Rulership===
[[File:001-syracuse-Triskeles.jpg|thumb|Silver [[Ancient drachma|drachma]] of Agathocles, depicting Apollo and the [[triskeles]].]]
War with [[Carthage]] followed. In 311&nbsp;BC Agathocles was defeated in the [[Battle of the Himera River (311 BC)|Battle of the Himera River]] and [[siege|besieged]] in Syracuse. In 310&nbsp;BC he made a desperate effort to break through the [[blockade]] and attack Carthage. He landed at [[Cape Bon]] in August 310&nbsp;BC, and was able to defeat the Carthaginians for the first time, and establish a camp near [[Tunis]]. He then turned east and tried to take over coastal trading cities such as [[Nabeul|Neapolis]] and [[Hadrumetum]], and on this occasion concluded an alliance with Ailymas, king of the [[Berber people|Libyans]] according to [[Diodorus of Sicily]], in an attempt to surround and isolate Carthage. After capturing Hadrumetum, [[Thapsus]] and other coastal towns, Agathocles turned his attention to central Tunisia. Before or during this campaign, he broke his alliance with Ailymas, whom he pursued and killed, but he kept his [[Numidia]]n army, including war chariots they built.<ref name="ailymas">{{Cite journal|url=https://journals.openedition.org/encyclopedieberbere/833?lang=en|title=Encyclopédie Berbère, Ailymas, G. Camps|journal=Encyclopédie Berbère|date=July 1986|issue=3|pages=325–326|doi=10.4000/encyclopedieberbere.833|access-date=6 January 2021|last1=Camps|first1=G.|doi-access=free}}</ref>

In 309/8&nbsp;BC, Agathocles began trying to sway [[Ophellas]], ruler of [[Cyrenaica]], as he was likely to prove a useful ally in Agathocles' war against the Carthaginians. To gain his allegiance, he promised to cede to Ophellas whatever conquests their combined forces might make in Africa, reserving to himself only the possession of Sicily.<ref>Diodorus xx. 40.1-4</ref> Ophellas gathered a powerful army from the homeland of his wife Euthydike (a descendant of [[Miltiades]]), [[Athens]], where many citizens felt disgruntled after having lost their voting rights.{{sfn|Habicht|1997|p=95}} Despite the natural obstacles that presented themselves on his route, Ophellas succeeded in reaching the Carthaginian territories after a toilsome and perilous march of more than two months.<ref>Diodorus xx. 41-42</ref> He was received by Agathocles with every demonstration of friendship, and the two armies encamped near each other, but a few days later, Agathocles betrayed his new ally by attacking the camp of the Cyrenaeans and having Ophellas killed.<ref>Diodorus xx. 42.4-5; 43.3-4</ref> The Cyrenean troops, left without a leader, went over to Agathocles.{{sfn|Habicht|1997|p=95}}
[[File:Nike alata, trofeo, Agatocle 305 - 295 a.C.png|thumb|Silver [[tetradrachm]] of Agathocles, depicting [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]] nailing up a war trophy.]]
[[File:Moneta in oro di Agatocle III sec. a.C. Atena, grifone, fascio di fulmini, basileus.png|thumb|Gold coin of Agathocles, depicting Athena on the obverse and a thunderbolt on the reverse. The [[Doric Greek]] inscription reads: ΑΓΑΘΟΚΛΕΟΥΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕOΣ, "Of King Agathocles".]]
After several victories, he was finally completely defeated (307&nbsp;BC) and fled secretly to Sicily.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} After concluding peace with Carthage in 306&nbsp;BC, Agathocles styled himself king of Sicily in 304&nbsp;BC, and established his rule over the [[Greece|Greek]] cities of the island more firmly than ever. A peace treaty with Carthage left him in control of Sicily east of the [[Halycus|Halycus River]]. Even in his old age, he displayed the same restless energy and is said to have been contemplating a fresh attack on Carthage at the time of his death.

His last years were plagued by ill health and the attempted usurpation of his throne by his grandson [[Archagathus (grandson of Agathocles of Syracuse)|Archagathus]], whom Diodorus Siculus states had him poisoned;<ref>{{cite web | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IFkZAAAAYAAJ&dq=agathocles&pg=PA222 | title=Agathocles | last1=Tillyard | first1=Henry Julius Wetenhall | date=1908 }}</ref> however Justinius and the majority of modern historians assert he died a natural death (presumably from cancer of the jaw).<ref>Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus, 23.2</ref><ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KeEjUjSaDA0C&dq=agathocles+jaw+cancer&pg=PA10 | title=A Dictionary of the Ancient Greek World | isbn=978-0-19-511206-1 | last1=Sacks | first1=David | date=1995 | publisher=Oxford University Press }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lnIpo8KBbP4C&dq=agathocles+jaw+cancer&pg=PA409 | title=The Cambridge Ancient History | isbn=978-0-521-23445-0 | last1=Astin | first1=A. E. | date=1994 | publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref> He was a born leader of mercenaries, and he did not shrink from cruelty for the purposes to royal power. Agathocles restored the Syracusan democracy on his deathbed and did not want his grandson to succeed him as king.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVWcAQAAQBAJ&dq=agathocles%20damnatio&pg=PA36 | title=The Oxford Classical Dictionary | isbn=978-0-19-954556-8 | last1=Hornblower | first1=Simon | last2=Spawforth | first2=Antony | last3=Eidinow | first3=Esther | date=29 March 2012 | publisher=Oxford University Press }}</ref>