Editing Advocate (section)

==Europe==

===United Kingdom and Crown dependencies===

====England and Wales====
In [[England and Wales]], Advocates and [[proctor]]s practiced [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] in the Admiralty Courts and also, but in England only, in the [[ecclesiastical courts]] of the [[Church of England]], in a similar way to barristers, attorneys and solicitors in the common law and equity courts.

Advocates, who formed the senior branch of the legal profession in their field, were Doctors of Law of the [[University of Oxford]], [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], or [[Trinity College Dublin|Dublin]] and [[Fellow]]s of the Society of [[Doctors' Commons]].

Advocates lost their exclusive rights of audience in [[probate]] and divorce cases when [[the Crown]] took these matters over from the church in 1857, and in Admiralty cases in 1859. The Society of Advocates was never formally wound up, but its building was sold off in 1865 and the last advocate died in 1912.

Barristers were admitted to the [[Court of Arches]] of the [[Church of England]] in 1867. More recently, [[Solicitor Advocate]]s have also been allowed to play this role.

====Scotland{{anchor|Advocate (Scotland)}}====

=====Faculty of Advocates=====
[[File:Quentin Massys 007.jpg|thumb|A 16th-century advocate]]
{{Scots law}}
{{main|Faculty of Advocates}}

Advocates are regulated by the [[Faculty of Advocates]] in [[Edinburgh]]. The Faculty of Advocates has about 750 members, of whom about 460 are in private practice. About 75 are [[King's Counsel]]. The Faculty is headed by the [[Dean (education)|Dean]] of the Faculty who, along with the Vice-Dean, [[Treasurer]], and [[court clerk|Clerk]] are elected annually by [[secret ballot]].
	 
The Faculty has a service company, Faculty Services Ltd, to which almost all Advocates belong, which organized the '''stables''' (sets of Advocates or barristers' chambers<ref>{{cite web |title=Stables overview |url=https://www.legal500.com/c/scottish-bar/stables-overview/ |website=legal500.com |access-date=2 May 2020}}</ref>) and fee collection. This gives a guarantee to all newly called Advocates of a place. Until the end of 2007, there was an agreement with the [[Law Society of Scotland]], which is the professional body for Scottish solicitors, as to the payment of fees, but this has now been replaced by the Law Society. It remains the case that Advocates are not permitted to [[lawsuit|sue]] for their fees, as they have no contractual relationship with their instructing solicitor or with the client.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.privy-council.org.uk/files/other/husbands-final.rtf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2008-01-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071010141208/http://www.privy-council.org.uk/files/other/husbands-final.rtf |archive-date=2007-10-10 }}</ref> Their fees are [[honorarium|honoraria]].

Advocates wear wigs, white bow-ties (or falls in the case of senior counsel), straps and gowns as a dress in court.

=====Becoming an advocate=====
The process of becoming an advocate is referred to as [[devilling]]. All [[wikt:intrant|intrants]] will be Scottish solicitors, i.e. hold a [[Bachelor of Laws]] degree and the [[Diploma in Legal Practice]], and must have completed the traineeships of two years (which in some cases may be reduced to eighteen months) required to qualify as a solicitor; or else will be members of the [[bar association|bar]] in another [[common law]] jurisdiction.

======Admission to the Faculty of Advocates======

At the end of the devilling period, a devil's admission to the Faculty is dependent on certification by the principal devil master that the devil is a fit and proper person to be an advocate and that the devil has been involved in a wide range of work in the course of devilling. A devil's competence in a number of aspects of written and oral advocacy is assessed during devilling, and a devil will not be admitted to the Faculty if assessed as not competent. Further details of this process can be found in the assessment section.

======Recent developments======

In recent years, increasing numbers of Advocates have come to the Scottish Bar after some time as solicitors, but it is possible to qualify with a law degree, after twenty-one months traineeship in a solicitor's office and almost a year as a 'devil', or apprentice advocate. There are exceptions for lawyers who are qualified in other European jurisdictions, but all must take the training course as 'devils'.

Until 2007, a number of young European lawyers were given a placement with Advocates under the [[European Young Lawyers Scheme]] organized by the [[British Council]]. They are known as 'Eurodevils', in distinction to the Scottish 'devils'. This scheme was withdrawn by the British Council. In January 2009, a replacement scheme began.

Lawyers qualified in other European Union states (but not in England and Wales) may have limited rights of audience in the Scottish supreme courts if they appear with an advocate, and a few solicitors known as 'solicitor-Advocates' have rights of audience, but for practical purposes, Advocates have almost exclusive rights of audience in the supreme courts – the [[High Court of Justiciary]] (criminal), and the [[Court of Session]] (civil). Advocates share the right of audience with solicitors in the [[sheriff court]]s and [[justice of the peace court]]s.

It used to be the case that Advocates were completely immune from suit etc. while conducting court cases and pre-trial work, as they had to act 'fearlessly and independently'; the rehearing of actions was considered contrary to [[public interest]]; and Advocates are ''required'' to accept clients, they cannot pick and choose. However, the seven-judge English ruling of ''Arthur J.S. Hall & Co. (a firm) v. Simons'' 2000 (House of Lords)<ref>{{cite web|author=Law Lord's Department |url=http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld199900/ldjudgmt/jd000720/hall-1.htm |title=House of Lords - Arthur J.S Hall and Co. v. Simons (A.P.) Barratt v. Ansell and Others (Trading As Woolf Seddon (A Firm) Harris v. Scholfield Roberts and Hill (Conjoined Appeals) |publisher=Parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk |date=20 July 2000 |access-date=11 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120829024300/http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld199900/ldjudgmt/jd000720/hall-1.htm |archive-date=29 August 2012 }}</ref> declared that none of these reasons justified the immunity strongly enough to sustain it. This has been followed in Scotland in ''Wright v Paton Farrell'' (2006) ''obiter''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.scotcourts.gov.uk/opinions/2006CSIH7.html |title=TREVOR RUSH McCafferty WRIGHT v. PATON FARRELL+ROBERT PATON+PETER FARRELL, 10 February 2006, Lord President |publisher=Scotcourts.gov.uk |access-date=2013-06-11 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120903153149/http://www.scotcourts.gov.uk/opinions/2006CSIH7.html |archive-date=3 September 2012 }}</ref> insofar as civil cases are concerned.

====Isle of Man====
Advocates are the only lawyers with rights of audience in the courts of the [[Isle of Man]]. An advocate's role is to advise on all matters of law: it may involve representing a client in the civil and criminal courts or advising a client on matters such as matrimonial and family law, trusts and estates, regulatory matters, property transactions, and commercial and business law. In court, Advocates wear a horsehair wig, stiff collar, bands, and a gown in the same way as barristers do elsewhere.

To become an advocate, it is normally necessary to hold either a [[Legal education in the United Kingdom#England, Wales and Northern Ireland|qualifying law degree]] with no less than lower second class (2:2) honors, or else a degree in another subject with no less than lower second class (2:2) honors complemented by the [[Common Professional Examination]]. It is then necessary to obtain a legal professional qualification such as the [[Bar Professional Training Course]] or the [[Legal Practice Course]]. It is not, however, necessary actually to be admitted as an English [[barrister]] or [[solicitor]] to train as an advocate.

Trainee Advocates (as [[articled clerk]]s are now more usually known) normally undertake a period of two years' training articled to a senior advocate; in the case of English barristers or solicitors who have been practicing or admitted for three years this training, the period is reduced to one year. Foreign lawyers who have been registered as legal practitioners in the Isle of Man for a certain time may also undertake a shorter period of training and supervision. During their training, all trainee Advocates are required to pass the Isle of Man bar examinations, which include papers on civil and criminal practice, constitutional and land law, and company law and taxation, as well as accounts. The examinations are rigorous and candidates are limited to three attempts to pass each paper.

Senior English barristers are occasionally licensed to appear as Advocates in cases expected to be unusually long or complex, without having to pass the bar examination or undertake further training: they are permitted only to act in relation to the matter for which they have been licensed. Similarly, barristers and solicitors employed as public prosecutors may be licensed to appear as Advocates without having to pass the bar examination or undertake further training: they are permitted only to act as such only for the duration of that employment.

The professional conduct of Advocates is regulated by the [[Isle of Man Law Society]], which also maintains a library for its members in [[Douglas, Isle of Man|Douglas]]. While Advocates in the Isle of Man have not traditionally prefixed their names with 'Advocate' in the Channel Islands manner, some Advocates have now started to adopt this practice.

====Jersey and the Bailiwick of Guernsey====
[[Law of Jersey|Jersey]] and the [[Bailiwick of Guernsey]] are two separate legal jurisdictions, have largely two different sets of laws and have two separate, but similar, legal professions. In both jurisdictions, Advocates—properly called Advocates of the Royal Court—are the only lawyers with general rights of audience in their courts.

To be eligible to practice as an advocate in Jersey, it is necessary first to have a law degree from a British university or a [[Graduate Diploma in Law]] and to have qualified as a recognized legal professional in England and Wales, Scotland or Northern Ireland.<ref>Advocates and Solicitors (Jersey) Law 1997</ref> Thereafter, a candidate must undertake two years of practical experience in a law office dealing with Jersey law, enrol on the Jersey Law Course provided by the Institute of Law, Jersey<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lawinstitute.ac.je/ |title=Home |website=Institute of Law, Jersey |access-date=2013-06-11 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130811152018/http://www.lawinstitute.ac.je/ |archive-date=11 August 2013 }}</ref> and pass examinations in six subjects. Alternatively, a person may apply to become a Jersey advocate two years after qualifying as a Jersey solicitor.

To become an advocate in Guernsey, one has to possess a valid law degree or diploma, plus a qualification as an English [[barrister]] or [[solicitor]], or a French [[avocat]]. They must then study for the Guernsey Bar. Three months of study of [[Normans|Norman]] law at the [[Université de Caen]] (University of Caen) is required; this is no longer required for entry into the legal profession in Jersey.

Guernsey Advocates dress in the same way as barristers, but substitute a black [[biretta]]-like [[Toque (French)|toque]] for a wig, while those in Jersey go bare-headed. Advocates are entitled to prefix their names with 'Advocate'; e.g. Mr. Tostevin is called to the Guernsey Bar and is henceforth known as Advocate Tostevin.

The head of the profession of advocate in each bailiwick is called the [[Bâtonnier]].

===Netherlands===
In the Netherlands, the professional conduct and the professional education of the advocates is regulated by the Dutch bar association (Nederlandse orde van advocaten) pursuant to the Advocates Act (''Advocatenwet'').

Dutch advocates are admitted to the bar conditionally, and have full rights of audience with the district courts and court of appeal. In order to obtain unconditional qualification, the advocate has to complete the Dutch bar education (''Beroepsopleiding Advocaten'') and fulfil certain requirements (which may vary among the various judicial regions within the Netherlands) under the supervision of a senior advocate (the ''patroon'') for a period of at least three years, called the ''stage''. During this time, the advocate is referred to as an ''advocaat-stagiair(e)''.

In court, advocates must wear a long black robe (a ''toga'') and a white pleated band (a ''bef'').

===Nordic countries===
{{main|Advokat}}

The [[Nordic countries]] have a united legal profession, which means that they do not draw a distinction between lawyers who plead in court and those who do not. To get an official recognition with an Advocates title, the candidate must have a legal degree, that is, completed ca. 5–6 years of legal studies from an accredited university in his or own country, and in addition have worked for some time (around 2 – 5 years) under the auspices of a qualified advocate and have some experience from court. When qualified, the candidate may obtain a license as an ''advocate'', the equivalent of being called to the bar. In all the [[Scandinavian languages]] the title is ''[[advokat]]''; in Finland ''advokat'' is the [[Swedish language|Swedish]] title for such a qualified lawyer, with the equivalent title in [[Finnish language|Finnish]] being ''asianajaja''.

However, one does not necessarily have to be an advocate to represent a party in the Nordic countries legally. In Norway, a person with an appropriate law degree, for example, can practice law as a registered legal advisor (''rettshjelper'') instead, which gives many of the same rights as an advocate's title. Both in Sweden and Norway any adult, in theory, can represent a party in court without any prior approval, training, license or advocate title. In practice it's unusual, and in Norway, it's subject to the approval of the court, which is unlikely to give it except in very simple cases.

In English, the Scandinavian title of ''advokat'' is interchangeably also translated as [[barrister]], [[lawyer]] or [[attorney-at-law]].

===Russia===
In [[Russia]], anyone with a legal education (lawyer) can practice law, but only a member of the ''{{transliteration|ru|Advokatura}}'' ({{lang|ru|Адвокатура}}) may practice before a criminal court (other person can be a defence counsel in criminal proceeding along with a member of ''Advokatura'' but not in lieu him)<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Velimirova|first=Viktoriya|date=15 February 2018|title=Конституционный Суд пояснил, по каким основаниям суд может не допустить в дело защитника-неадвоката|language=ru|magazine=Адвокатская газета|url=https://www.advgazeta.ru/novosti/ks-reshal-dolzhen-li-zashchitnik-imet-yuridicheskoe-obrazovanie/}}</ref> and [[Constitutional Court of Russia|Constitutional Court]] (leaving aside persons having [[academic degree]] of [[Candidate of Sciences|candidate]] or [[Doctor of Sciences|doctor]] in juridical sciences who also can represent parties in constitutional proceeding).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ksrf.ru/ru/Info/LegalBases/FCL/Pages/Chapter2.aspx|title=Общие правила производства в Конституционном Суде Российской Федерации|language=ru|publisher=[[Constitutional Court of Russia]]|access-date=18 September 2021|archive-date=18 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918052959/http://ksrf.ru/ru/Info/LegalBases/FCL/Pages/Chapter2.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Specialist degree]] in law is the most commonly awarded [[academic degree]] in Russian jurisprudence<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lawstudies.com/Russia/|title=Study Law in Russia|language=en|publisher=Lawstudies.com}}</ref> but after Russia's accession to the [[Bologna Process|Bologna process]]<ref>{{cite news|author=<!--Staff writer(s)/no by-line.-->|date=18 September 2003|title=Россия присоединилась к Болонской конвенции|language=ru|work=[[RIA Novosti]]|url=https://ria.ru/20030918/436076.html}}</ref> only [[Bachelor's degree|bachelor]] of laws and [[Master's degree|master]] of laws [[academic degree]]s are available in Russian institutions of higher education.<ref>{{cite news|author=<!--Staff writer(s)/no by-line.-->|date=25 October 2007|title=В РФ вводится двухуровневая система высшего образования|language=ru|work=[[RBK Group|RBK]]|url=https://www.rbc.ru/society/25/10/2007/5703c98e9a79470eaf76788c|trans-title=A two-tier system of higher education is being introduced in the Russian Federation}}</ref> An "advocate" is a lawyer who has demonstrated qualification and belongs to an organizational structure of Advocates specified by law,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Maggs|first1=Peter|last2=Schwartz|first2=Olga|last3=Burnham|first3=William|year=2015|title=Law and Legal System of the Russian Federation|edition=6|language=en|location=Huntington, New York|publisher=Juris Publishing|page=196|isbn=978-1-57823-443-1}}</ref> known as being "[[Call to the bar|called to the bar]]" in Commonwealth countries.

An examination is administered by the qualifications commission of regional advocate's chamber for admission to its ''{{transliteration|ru|Advokatura}}''. To sit for the exam, one must have a higher legal education and also two years of experience in legal work after graduation or a training program in a law firm after graduation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fparf.ru/education/learning/|title=Выучиться на адвоката|language=ru|publisher=Federal Chamber of Advocates of Russian Federation}}</ref> The exam is both [[Writing assessment|written]] and [[Oral exam|oral]], but the main test is oral. The written exam takes place in the form of computer testing and includes issues of the professional conduct of advocate and advocate's professional responsibility. After successfully passing of the written exam the candidates are allowed to take the oral exam. As part of the oral exam, the candidate must demonstrate his knowledge in various bodies of law and solve some mimic a real-life legal tasks. The candidate who does not pass the qualification exam can try to pass it again after 1 year only.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fparf.ru/documents/fpa-rf/the-documents-of-the-council/regulations-on-the-procedure-of-qualification-examination-for-the-status-of-a-lawyer/|title=Положение о порядке сдачи квалификационного экзамена на присвоение статуса адвоката|language=ru|publisher=Federal Chamber of Advocates of Russian Federation}}</ref> The qualifications commission is composed of seven Advocates, two judges, two representatives of the regional legislature, and two representatives of the [[Ministry of Justice (Russia)|Ministry of Justice]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fparf.ru/documents/fpa-rf/documents-commissions/razyasnenie-komissii-fpa-rf-po-etike-i-standartam%20otvod/|title=Разъяснение Комиссии ФПА РФ по этике и стандартам по вопросу об отводе члена квалификационной комиссии|language=ru|publisher=Federal Chamber of Advocates of Russian Federation|trans-title=Clarification of the FPA RF Commission on Ethics and Standards on the issue of disqualification of a member of the qualification commission|date=18 November 2020}}</ref>

After successful passing the qualification exam a candidate should take the oath of advocate. From the moment of taking the oath, he becomes an advocate and a member of the advocate's chamber of the relevant [[Federal subjects of Russia|federal subject of Russia]]. Advocate's chamber sends relevant information to the territorial subdivision of the [[Ministry of Justice (Russia)|Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation]], which includes the new advocate in the register of Advocates of the relevant [[Federal subjects of Russia|federal subject of Russia]] and issues to him an advocate's certificate, which is the only official document confirming the status of an advocate, on the basis of this information. The status of an advocate is granted for an indefinite period and is not limited by any age. There is only 1 advocate's chamber in each federal subject of Russia. Each advocate can be the member of only 1 advocate's chamber and can be listed in the register of Advocates of the relevant federal subject of Russia only. In case of relocation to another region, the advocate ceases to be a member of the advocate's chamber and should be excluded from register of Advocates at the old place of residence (advocate's certificate should be returned to the subdivision of the [[Ministry of Justice (Russia)|Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation]], which issued it), and after that he becomes a member of the advocate's chamber and is included in the register of Advocates at the new place of residence (where he receive new advocate's certificate) without any exams. Each advocate can carry out his professional activity throughout Russia, regardless of membership in particular regional advocate's chamber and regardless of particular regional register where he is listed in. Advocates carry out their professional activity individually (advocate's cabinet) or as the member of advocate's [[juridical person]] (collegium of Advocates, advocate's bureau). Advocate can open own cabinet after at least 3 years legal practice in collegium or bureau. An advocate, who has opened own cabinet, can not be the member of any advocate's juridical person, and an advocate, who is the member of one advocate's juridical person, can not be the member of any other advocate's juridical person. Advocate is obliged to report to advocate's chamber any changes in his membership in a collegium or a bureau and, equally, opening and closing a cabinet.<ref>{{cite act|type=Federal Law|index=63-FZ|date=31 May 2002|legislature=[[State Duma]]|title=Об адвокатской деятельности и адвокатуре в Российской Федерации|language=ru|trans-title=About advocate's activity and advokatura in Russian Federation|url=http://pravo.gov.ru/proxy/ips/?searchres=&bpas=cd00000&a3=102000505&a3type=1&a3value=&a6=&a6type=1&a6value=&a15=&a15type=1&a15value=&a7type=1&a7from=&a7to=&a7date=31.05.2002&a8=63-%D4%C7&a8type=1&a1=&a0=&a16=&a16type=1&a16value=&a17=&a17type=1&a17value=&a4=&a4type=1&a4value=&a23=&a23type=1&a23value=&textpres=&sort=7&x=47&y=12}}</ref>

An advocate can not be an individual entrepreneur, [[government]] [[official]], [[Municipality|municipal]] [[official]], [[notary]], [[judge]], [[Election|elected]] [[official]]. An advocate can not work under an [[employment]] ([[Labour law|labour]]) [[contract]], with the exception of [[Science|scientific]] and [[Teacher|teaching]] activities. An advocate may combine his status with the status of a [[patent attorney]], a [[trustee in bankruptcy]]. An advocate may be a [[shareholder]]/[[Ownership|owner]] of business [[juridical person]]s and a member of [[voluntary associations]] and [[Political party|political parties]]. Russian advocate may have a status of advocate ([[Attorney at law|attorney]], [[barrister]], [[solicitor]]) in foreign [[jurisdiction]], subject to above conditions.

[[Russia]]n law provides for voluntary and involuntary suspension of advocate's status. Voluntary suspension for a term of 1 to 10 years occurs when an Advocate files relevant application to the advocate's chamber. Involuntary suspension is applicable in cases of serious illness, election to an elected position in federal, regional or local authorities, military conscription, declaration of absence made by the court decision. An Advocate can not carry out advocate's activity during suspension, otherwise he may be deprived of the right to be an Advocate.<ref>{{cite news|last=Varaksin|first=Maksim|date=1 August 2018|title=За адвокатами с приостановленным статусом предложили установить слежку|language=ru|magazine=[[Pravo.ru]]|url=https://pravo.ru/news/204384/}}</ref> After the end of the suspension, advocate's status should be resumed without any additional conditions. Also [[Russia]]n law provides for voluntary and involuntary termination of advocate's status. Voluntary termination of the status occurs when an Advocate files relevant application to the advocate's chamber. Involuntary termination of the status is applicable in cases of death, declaration of no having legal capacity or having limited legal capacity made by the court decision, conviction for intentional crime made by the court decision, violations of the federal law regulating advocate's activity or advocate's code of conduct found by advocate's chamber. The latter two cases incur lifetime prohibition on being an Advocate.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Pavlova|first=Zinaida|date=1 March 2021|title=Прекращение статуса адвоката по неблаговидным причинам теперь закрывает доступ к судебному представительству?|language=ru|magazine=Адвокатская газета|url=https://www.advgazeta.ru/novosti/prekrashchenie-statusa-advokata-po-neblagovidnym-prichinam-teper-zakryvaet-dostup-k-sudebnomu-predstavitelstvu/}}</ref> In other cases, ex-Advocate can go back to being an Advocate on general grounds through a passing the qualification exam, on condition that the reasons for termination of advocate's status have ceased to exist.

Advocate's chambers are [[professional association]]s of Advocates, which are based on mandatory membership of Advocates. All regional advocate's chambers are mandatory members of [[Federal Chamber of Advocates of Russian Federation]] ({{langx|ru|Федеральная палата адвокатов Российской Федерации}}), which is [[professional association]] at the federal level.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fparf.ru/fpa-rf/about/|title=О Федеральной палате адвокатов РФ|language=ru|publisher=Federal Chamber of Advocates of Russian Federation}}</ref>

As of 2018, there were 49,4 Advocates per {{formatnum: 100000}} people in Russia.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Khimshiashvili|first1=Polina|last2=Alekhina|first2=Margarita|date=4 October 2018|title=Адвокатов в России оказалось в три раза меньше по сравнению с Европой|language=ru|work=[[RBK Group|RBK]]|url=https://www.rbc.ru/politics/04/10/2018/5bb550b29a794759928e6e99}}</ref>

In [[Russia]], foreign Advocates can advise on the legislation of their countries; they should register in the special register maintained by the [[Ministry of Justice (Russia)|Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation]] to obtain the right to carry out this activity.<ref>{{cite news|author=<!--Staff writer(s)/no by-line.-->|date=22 August 2012|title=Приказ Министерства юстиции Российской Федерации (Минюст России) от 31 июля 2012 г. N 151 г. Москва "Об утверждении Административного регламента предоставления Министерством юстиции Российской Федерации государственной услуги по ведению реестра адвокатов иностранных государств, осуществляющих адвокатскую деятельность на территории Российской Федерации"|language=ru|work=[[Rossiyskaya Gazeta]]|url=https://rg.ru/2012/08/22/advokat-dok.html}}</ref> Foreign advocate can in addition become Russian advocate. There are two possible paths for that. The first possibility is to become Russian advocate on the same basis as Russian citizens (i.e. through higher legal education in one of Russian universities, two years of experience in legal work in Russia after graduation or a training program in Russian law firm after graduation, successful passing the qualification exam). Since Russia's [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] Accession the second possibility is available: foreign advocate can just pass special qualification exam to become Russian advocate.<ref>{{cite news|author=<!--Staff writer(s)/no by-line.-->|date=22 March 2011|title=ФПА разрешила иностранным адвокатам получать статус российского адвоката|language=ru|work=Pravo.ru|url=https://pravo.ru/news/view/50683/}}</ref>