Editing Adjara (section)

== History ==
{{main|History of Adjara}}
Adjara was a part of Georgian polities, [[Colchis]] and [[Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)|Caucasian Iberia]], since ancient times.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morritt |first=Robert D. |date=2017 |title=Stones that Speak |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M1EaBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA140 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publisher |isbn=9781443821766 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>Ronald G. Suny - The Making of the Georgian Nation. Indiana University Press. Page 8</ref> Colonized by [[Greeks]] in the 5th century BC, the region fell under Rome in the 2nd century BC. It became part of the kingdom of [[Lazica]] before being incorporated into the [[Kingdom of Abkhazia]] in the 8th century AD, the latter led [[Kingdom of Georgia#Unification of the Georgian State|unification of Georgian monarchy]] in the 11th century.

Adjaria was occupied by several empires: the [[Achaemenid Empire|First Persian Empire]] (500 BC), [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuks]] (11th century), [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] (13th century), and [[Timurid Empire|Timurids]] (14th century).{{sfn|George|2009|p=99}}

=== Ottoman period ===
The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] conquered the area in 1614. Although, the [[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman millet system]] allowed its subjects extensive self-governance and [[religious freedom]], many Adjarians gradually chose to convert to [[Islam]] during the 200 years of Ottoman presence.{{sfn|George|2009|pp=99–100}}<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Bennigsen|first1=Alexandre|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nO0NAQAAMAAJ|title=Muslims of the Soviet Empire: A Guide|last2=Wimbush|first2=S. Enders|date=1986|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-33958-4|pages=207|language=en}}</ref> Despite this, the population never abandoned its native Georgian tongue and avoided demographic infuence from the Ottomans.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gachechiladze|first=Revaz|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_New_Geo1rgia/hGVuBwAAQBAJ|title= The New Georgia: Space, Society, Politics|date=2014|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn= 9781317762560|page=25}}</ref> The [[Nobility of Georgia (country)|nobility]] converted to Islam first.{{sfn|Sanikidze|2018|p=249}} Adjarians were fully Islamized by the end of the eighteenth century.{{sfn|Sanikidze|2018|p=249}}

=== Russian Empire ===
The Ottomans were forced to cede Adjara to the expanding [[Russian Empire]] in 1878 under the [[Treaty of Berlin (1878)|Treaty of Berlin]].{{sfn|Sanikidze|2018|p=250}} The Berlin Treaty allowed [[Adjarians]] to leave for Turkey, keeping a provision of Section 6, article 21 of the [[Treaty of San Stefano]].{{sfn|Hoch|Kopeček|2011|p=7}}{{sfn|Sanikidze|2018|p=250}} Many Adjarians emigrated to Turkey.{{sfn|Hoch|Kopeček|2011|p=7}}{{sfn|Sanikidze|2018|p=250}} While the Russian authorities supported the [[Russian Orthodox Church]]'s missionary efforts, they also tried to win the loyalty of Adjarians by building mosques and madrassas and supporting the local Muslim clergy.{{sfn|Sanikidze|2018|p=250}} As a result, many Adjarians emigrants, called [[Muhacir]], came back to Adjara.{{sfn|Sanikidze|2018|p=250}} Within Russian imperial administrative division, Adjara was called [[Batumi okrug]], comprising [[Kutaisi Governorate]].
=== Georgian Democratic Republic===
In 1918, Georgia regained its independence as a [[Democratic Republic of Georgia|democratic republic]] and Adjara became part of it. However, in April 1918, the [[Ottoman Empire]] invaded Georgia and captured Batumi. The operation was conducted on 13-14 April 1918, with the 37th Division entering Batumi under the command of Colonel [[Kâzım Karabekir]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gürbüz|first=Musa|date=2009|title=Turkish Military Activities in the Caucasus Following the 1917 Russian Revolution: The Battle of Sardarabad and its Political Consequences|journal=Review of Armenian Studies|url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/777679|volume=19-20}}</ref>

On 4 June 1918, the [[Treaty of Batum]] was signed, under which Georgia was forced to cede Adjara to the Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Varshalomidze|first=Archil|date=2019|title=South-Western Georgia (Ajara) within the Geostrategic Interests of the Ottoman Empire in the First Quarter of XX Century|journal=Herald of Oriental Studies|url=https://hos.openjournals.ge/index.php/hos/article/download/2805/2955}}</ref> However, due to the Ottoman defeat in the First World War and the [[Treaty of Mudros]], the Ottomans soon withdrew the territory.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Saparov|first=Arsène|date=March 2012|title=Why Autonomy? The Making of Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region 1918-1925|journal=Europe-Asia Studies|volume=64|issue=2|page=284|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41478346|doi=10.1080/09668136.2011.642583|jstor=41478346 |s2cid=154783461 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> The British warship {{HMS|Liverpool|1909|6}}) troops in entered Batumi in 1918,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rose|first=John D.|date=April 1980|title=Batum as Domino, 1919–1920: The Defence of India in Transcaucasia|journal=The International History Review|volume=2|issue=2|page=266|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40105753|doi=10.1080/07075332.1980.9640214|jstor=40105753 }}</ref> and Adjara was temporarily placed under the British Military Governor [[James Cooke-Collis]], who established the Council for the Administration of Batoum and its Region to administer the region in December 1918. The British withdrew in 1920 and Adjara rejoined the [[Democratic Republic of Georgia]].<ref>{{cite news|date=7 July 2020|title=Batumi: Travails of the City|website=[[Civil Georgia]]|url=https://civil.ge/archives/358559|access-date=5 March 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Rose|first=John D.|date=April 1980|title=Batum as Domino, 1919–1920: The Defence of India in Transcaucasia|journal=The International History Review|volume=2|issue=2|page=286|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40105753|doi=10.1080/07075332.1980.9640214|jstor=40105753 }}</ref> The British administration ceded the region to the [[Democratic Republic of Georgia]] on July 20, 1920.<ref name=experiment>{{cite book|access-date=2022-09-05|date=2017|edition=1st|first1=Eric|isbn=978-1-78699-092-1|last1=Lee|location=[[London]]|pages=135|publisher=ZED Books|title=The Experiment: Georgia's Forgotten Revolution 1918-1921|url=https://www.bloomsburycollections.com/book/the-experiment-georgia-s-forgotten-revolution-19181921/}}</ref> It was granted autonomy under the Georgian constitution adopted in February 1921 when the [[Red Army invasion of Georgia|Red Army invaded Georgia]].<ref name=constitution1921>{{Cite web| url=https://matiane.wordpress.com/2012/09/04/constitution-of-georgia-1921/ | title=Constitution Of Georgia (1921), Article 107| date=4 September 2012|publisher=Matiane |access-date=2022-09-05}}</ref> Turkey reinvaded Adjara in March 1921, although Georgians defeated Turks in the [[Battle of Batumi]] and [[Ankara]]'s government ceded the territory to Georgia under Article VI of [[Treaty of Kars]] on the condition that autonomy be provided for the [[Islam|Muslim]] population, while Turkish commodities were guaranteed free transit through the port of [[Batumi]].{{sfn|George|2009|p=100}}{{sfn|George|2009|p=105}}<ref>{{Cite web| url=https://www.deutscharmenischegesellschaft.de/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/Vertrag-von-Kars-23.-Oktober-1921.pdf | title=Treaty of Kars (Treaty of Friendship between Turkey, the Socialist Soviet Republic of Armenia, the Azerbaijan Socialist Soviet Republic, and the Socialist Soviet Republic of Georgia) |date=1921-10-23 | accessdate=2022-03-03 }}</ref> The Soviets established in 1921 the [[Adjarian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] within the [[Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic]] in accord with this clause, thus Adjara remained part of Georgia. The autonomous republic was the only autonomous unit in the USSR based solely on religion.{{efn|The other autonomous unit based on an ethnoreligious factor was the [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]].}}<ref name=coene>{{cite book |last1=Coene |first1=Frederik |date=2010 |title=The Caucasus, an introduction |edition=1st |publisher=Routledge |location=[[London]] |pages=162 |isbn=9780415666831| url=https://www.routledge.com/The-Caucasus---An-Introduction/Coene/p/book/9780415666831 |access-date=2022-09-05}}</ref> However, Stalin's definition of what constituted a nation was based on language. Without their own language, Adjars did not develop a strong sense of national identity, separate from Georgian.{{sfn|Kaufman|2001|p=124}} Moreover, the Soviet atheist ideology dampened religious practice.{{sfn|George|2009|p=105}} In the 1920s, the Ajars rebelled against the Soviet anti-Islamic activities, as well as against the collectivization reforms.{{sfn|George|2009|p=105}} The armed uprising began in the mountainous regions of Adjara in April 1929. Soviet troops were deployed in response and swiftly quelled the revolt.<ref>Peter Malcolm Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis (1977), The Cambridge history of Islam, p. 639. [[Cambridge University Press]], {{ISBN|0-521-29136-4}}</ref>
===Independent Georgia===
After Georgian independence, [[Aslan Abashidze]] became the chairman of Adjaria's parliament, the Adjarian Supreme Soviet. Abashidze was initially appointed by the first Georgian president Zviad Gamsakhurdia in 1991.<ref>{{cite web|title=Adjara Celebrates Abashidze's Departure |date=6 May 2004 |url=https://civil.ge/archives/105875}}</ref> However, he later took advantage of the [[Georgian Civil War|civil war]] in the country and turned Adjara into the personal fiefdom, although it remained relatively prosperous enclave in an otherwise rather chaotic country.<ref name="Abash">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3683629.stm|title=Aslan Abashidze|publisher=BBC|language=English|date=4 May 2004|access-date=11 November 2021}}</ref> During the [[1991–1992 Georgian coup d'état]] which ousted Gamsakhurdia from power, Abashidze declared a [[state of emergency]] in Adjara, closing its borders and shutting down the Adjarian Supreme Soviet. In response to pressure from the Adjarian opposition led by [[Republican Party of Georgia]], Georgia's new leader [[Eduard Shevardnadze]] met Aslan Abashidze in Batumi and persuaded him to resume the Supreme Soviet sessions in May 1992. However, the opposition failed to oust Abashidze. While Shevardnadze could easily sway certain members of the Adjarian Supreme Soviet against Abashidze, he did not do so. Being brought to power through the coup launched by the militia leaders [[Jaba Ioseliani]] and [[Tengiz Kitovani]], Shevardnadze saw Abashidze as a useful counterweight against these warlords.<ref name="wheatley"/>

Further exploiting the instability, at this time brought by the [[War in Abkhazia (1992–1993)|War in Abkhazia]], Abashidze moved to further consolidate his power. During the summer of 1992, Abashidze appointed a seven-member Presidium of the Adjarian Supreme Soviet, made up of his supporters, and ruled by decree through this body. The Supreme Soviet, on the other hand, practically ceased to convene. Abashidze unilaterally took power without formal agreement and started to withhold tax revenue and capture Adjara's considerable wealth.{{sfn|George|2009|p=121}}{{sfn|George|2009|p=123}} However, he managed to prevent various paramilitary groups from entering Adjara's territory, and preserved peace through [[authoritarianism]], which brought him considerable popularity.<ref name="wheatley"/>

After the end of Georgia's civil war, Abashidze reached agreement with the Georgian president [[Eduard Shevardnadze]] to stay in power.<ref name="Abash"/> Shevardnadze, who had yet to cement his power in Georgia, ignored Abashidze's authoritarian rule and even appreciated that it brought stability to the region.<ref name="wheatley">{{cite book |last= Wheatley|first=Jonathan|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=dGqLAAAAMAAJ|title= Georgia from National Awakening to Rose Revolution |date=2005 |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]]|isbn= 9780754645030|pages=70–71}}</ref> The central government in Tbilisi had very little say in what went on in Adjara. Elections in Adjara were not [[Free and fair election|free and fair]], Abashidze controlled the media and captured customs revenue for his personal enrichment.{{sfn|George|2009|p=129}}{{sfn|George|2009|p=137}} Abashidze instituted the border control with the rest of Georgia and created armed paramilitaries.<ref>{{cite web|title= Aslan Abashidze, a Man of Feudal Loyalty and Pride|date=21 December 2002 |url=https://civil.ge/archives/106959}}</ref> However, he asserted that Adjara wasn't separatist.{{sfn|George|2009|p=121}}{{sfn|George|2009|pp=122–123}} Adjara is the only autonomous region in the [[Southern Caucasus]] which has not been involved in the secessionist conflict with the central government since the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]]. While [[Adjarians]], a subgroup of [[ethnic Georgians]], adopted [[Islam]] during the centuries of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman imperial rule]] over Adjara, which differentiated them from the rest of Georgian subethnicities who adhere to [[Georgian Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]], Adjarians at the same time retained many cultural similarities with Christian Georgians and never developed a separate "Adjarian identity", remaining accepted within the definition of Georgian nation. This provided insufficient base for a strong [[Nationalism|nationalist]] or excessively [[Regionalism (politics)|regionalist]] movement in Adjara. Moreover, a considerable power and resources allowed Abashidze to politically and financially establish a national political role throughout whole Georgia, and the Union for the Revival took part in the [[Elections in Georgia (country)|nationwide Georgian elections]].<ref name="world">{{cite journal|last= Cornell|first=Svante|url=http://www.cornellcaspian.com/pub2/54.2cornell.pdf|title= Autonomy as a source of conflict: Caucasian conflicts and theoretical perspective |publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press|journal=World Politics|volume=54|issue=2|date=January 2002|pages=274–275}}</ref> 

Abashidze's regime survived on receiving funds from the customs control in [[Sarpi, Georgia|Sarpi]] at [[Georgia–Turkey border]], contraband of cigarettes and allegedly also weapons and narcotics, an oil refinery in Batumi and selling of ships stationed in Adjara without Georgian government's approval.<ref>{{cite book |last= Wheatley|first=Jonathan|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=dGqLAAAAMAAJ|title= Georgia from National Awakening to Rose Revolution |date=2005 |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]]|isbn= 9780754645030|page=115}}</ref> Even though Shevardnadze often complained about Abashidze's aggressive autonomous strategy, they had good relationships and supported each other when they needed public support.{{sfn|George|2009|p=129}}{{sfn|George|2009|p=141}} Initially Abashidze's [[Democratic Union for Revival]] and Shevardnadze's [[Union of Citizens of Georgia]] worked together in [[Parliament of Georgia|Georgian Parliament]] and Adjarian Supreme Council following new elections in 1995-1996. However, a series of disputes with UCG in 1997 concerning limits of Abashidze's power in Adjara and defections of his party deputies to UCG led Abashidze to view the UCG and especially its 'reformists' faction with suspicions and he withdrew into opposition, establishing a powerful anti-CUG bloc which took part in the [[1999 Georgian parliamentary election]] and garnered around 25 per cent of the vote.<ref>{{cite book |last= Wheatley|first=Jonathan|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=dGqLAAAAMAAJ|title= Georgia from National Awakening to Rose Revolution |date=2005 |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]]|isbn= 9780754645030|page=124}}</ref>

In 2000, by withdrawing his candidacy from the [[2000 Georgian presidential election|presidential elections in Georgia]], Abashidze managed to get Shevardnadze to change Georgian constitution to increase Adjara's status. From 1997 to 2001, Abashidze passed several amendments to Adjara's constitution to strengthen his power. He established the post of a directly elected Head of the Autonomous Republic of Adjara with powers to control any movement of military on Adjara's territory, and was elected on this position in November 2001 while being the only candidate.<ref>{{cite book |last= Wheatley|first=Jonathan|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=dGqLAAAAMAAJ|title= Georgia from National Awakening to Rose Revolution |date=2005 |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]]|isbn= 9780754645030|page=116}}</ref>

The situation changed following the [[Rose Revolution]] of 2003 when Shevardnadze was deposed in favor of the reformist opposition leader [[Mikheil Saakashvili]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://civil.ge/archives/105112 |title=Saakashvili's Vows Improvements with Drastic Measures|work=Civil Georgia |date=2004-01-25 |accessdate=2022-09-05}}</ref> Adjaran leader [[Aslan Abashidze]], being in strong opposition to the [[Rose Revolution]], declared a state of emergency immediately after [[Eduard Shevardnadze]]'s ousting on 23 November 2003.{{refn| name=icgpage6|International Crisis Group, 2004, page 6.<ref name=icg-ajara1>{{cite report |url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/europe-central-asia/caucasus/georgia/saakashvilis-ajara-success-repeatable-elsewhere-georgia | title=Saakashvili's Ajara Success: Repeatable Elsewhere in Georgia?|id=ICG Europe Briefing 34| publisher=[[International Crisis Group]] |date=2004-08-18|accessdate=2022-09-05}}</ref>}} He intensified a crackdown on opposition, with dozens being injured as a result of clashes between protesters and police in the southern Adjaran village of [[Gonio (settlement)|Gonio]] in January 2004.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://civil.ge/archives/105077 |title=Adjarian Police Foiled Protest Rally|work=Civil Georgia |date=2004-01-19 |accessdate=2022-09-05}}</ref> Soon after his inauguration as president in January 2004, Saakashvili took aim at Abashidze with strong [[anticorruption]] reforms.{{sfn|George|2009|pp=172–173}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://civil.ge/archives/105123 |title=Georgia Has a New President|work=Civil Georgia |date=2004-01-25 |accessdate=2022-09-05}}</ref> In the wake of Abashidze's visit to [[Moscow]], the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Russia)|Russian Foreign Ministry]] issued a statement on January 20 backing Abashidze's policy and condemning his opposition as "extremist forces".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://civil.ge/archives/104987 |title=Moscow Backs Abashidze, Slams "Extremist" Forces in Adjara|work=Civil Georgia |date=2004-01-21 |accessdate=2022-09-05}}</ref> In spring 2004, a major [[2004 Adjara crisis|crisis in Adjara]] erupted as the central government sought to reimpose its authority on the region. It led to several encounters between Abashidze's paramilitaries and the [[Defence Forces of Georgia|Georgian army]].{{sfn|George|2009|p=175}} However, Saakashvili's ultimate and mass protests in [[Batumi]] against Abashidze's autocratic rule forced the Adjaran leader to resign in May 2004. Facing charges of [[embezzlement]] and murder, Abashidze destroyed the bridges between Adjara and the rest of Georgia to delay the advance of Georgian troops in Batumi and then fled to Moscow.{{sfn|George|2009|p=175}} Even Abashidze's former ally, Haji Mahmud Kamashidze, sided with Saakashvili.{{sfn|George|2009|p=175}} Saakashvili wanted Adjara to keep a significant autonomy.{{sfn|George|2009|p=176}} A new law was therefore introduced to redefine the terms of Adjara's autonomy. [[Levan Varshalomidze]] succeeded Abashidze as the chairman of the government.<ref name="icg-ajara">{{cite report |url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/europe-central-asia/caucasus/georgia/saakashvilis-ajara-success-repeatable-elsewhere-georgia | title=Saakashvili's Ajara Success: Repeatable Elsewhere in Georgia?|pages=6–11|id=ICG Europe Briefing 34| publisher=[[International Crisis Group]] |date=2004-08-18|accessdate=2022-09-05}}</ref>

In July 2007, the seat of the [[Constitutional Court of Georgia|Georgian Constitutional Court]] was moved from Tbilisi to Batumi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.constcourt.ge/index.php?lang_id=ENG&sec_id=13 |title=Constitutional Court of Georgia - Brief History |work=constcourt.ge |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030206/http://www.constcourt.ge/index.php?lang_id=ENG&sec_id=13 |archive-date=2011-07-21 }}</ref> In November 2007 Russia ended its two-century military presence in the region by withdrawing from the [[12th Military Base]] (the former 145th Motor Rifle Division) in Batumi.<ref>{{cite news|title=Russia closes last military base in Georgia|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-georgia-russia-bases-idUSL1387605220071113|work=Reuters|date=13 November 2007|access-date=30 June 2017|archive-date=16 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016070905/http://www.reuters.com/article/2007/11/13/us-georgia-russia-bases-idUSL1387605220071113|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>[http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=16321 Russia Hands Over Batumi Military Base to Georgia]. Civil Georgia, Tbilisi. 2007-11-13.</ref>

Turkey still has noticeable economic and religious influence in Adjara, making some Georgians wary of the Turkish presence.<ref>{{cite web|title=Georgians Wary of Turkey's Rising Influence in Batumi|date=2017-03-09|url=https://eurasianet.org/georgians-wary-of-turkeys-rising-influence-in-batumi|publisher=Eurasianet|quote=While the government does not release figures on the levels of Turkish investment in Ajara, it represents roughly 80-90 percent of the total foreign investment in the region, a former regional government official said, speaking on condition of anonymity.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Balci|first1=Bayram|title=Strengths and Constraints of Turkish Policy in the South Caucasus|url=http://carnegieendowment.org/2014/06/18/strengths-and-constraints-of-turkish-policy-in-south-caucasus|publisher=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]]|date=18 June 2014|quote=Turkish religious influence is notable, not only in Azerbaijan but also in the Muslim regions of Georgia (in the region of Adjara and the border areas of Azerbaijan).|access-date=9 October 2015|archive-date=22 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922021604/https://carnegieendowment.org/2014/06/18/strengths-and-constraints-of-turkish-policy-in-south-caucasus|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Islam in Georgia |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/295315/March_14_Islam_in_Georgia_final.doc |format=Word document |website=gov.uk |publisher=[[Government of the United Kingdom]] |quote=Turkey’s influence in the region remains strong, in part through funding provided by Ankara for local mosques}}</ref> However, in recent years, Turkish influence has again been supplanted by the Russians, who have returned to the region in large numbers, also causing anxiety among some locals.<ref>[https://www.rferl.org/a/georgia-russian-businesses-black-sea-resort/32556083.html 'You Can't Even Speak Georgian In Georgia Anymore': Russian Businesses Roil Black Sea Resort], [[Radio Free Europe]], August 20, 2023 Quote: "At one point, a right-wing party, the Alliance of Patriots, had erected campaign billboards depicting Adjara as "occupied" by Turkey...Now, it is the Russians."</ref>