Editing Abd al-Rahman III (section)

==Life==

===Early years===
====Lineage and appearance====
[[File:Toda Aznares - The Portuguese Genealogy (Genealogia dos Reis de Portugal).jpg|thumb|Toda Aznares half aunt of Abd al-Rahman III]]
Abd al-Rahman was born in [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]], on 18 December 890.<ref name="worldhistory" /><ref>His year of birth is given as 891 in the [[Chambers Biographical Dictionary]], {{ISBN|0-550-18022-2}}, p. 2</ref> His year of birth is also given as 889 and 891. He was the grandson of [[Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi]], seventh independent [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] emir of [[al-Andalus]]. His parents were Abdullah's son Muhammad and Muzna (or Muzayna), a Christian concubine.<ref>{{cite book| url = http://www.bookrags.com/biography/abd-al-rahman-iii/| title = Abd al-Rahman, III Biography}}</ref> His paternal grandmother was also a Christian, the royal ''infanta'' [[Onneca Fortúnez]], daughter of the captive king [[Fortún Garcés of Pamplona]]. Abd al-Rahman was thus nephew in the half-blood of queen [[Toda of Pamplona]]. He is described as having "white skin, blue eyes and attractive face; good looking, although somewhat sturdy and stout. His legs were short, to the point that the stirrups of his saddle were mounted just one palm under it. When mounted, he looked tall, but on his feet he was quite short. He dyed his beard black."<ref name="ibn">[[Ibn Idhari]], ''Kitab al-Bayan''</ref> He had reddish-blond hair,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Flood |first=Timothy M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Duh3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA38 |title=Rulers and Realms in Medieval Iberia, 711-1492 |publisher=McFarland & Company |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4766-7471-1 |pages=38 |language=en}}</ref> which he reportedly dyed black to appear more "Arab".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Heng |first=Geraldine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=snRJDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 |title=The Invention of Race in the European Middle Ages |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-108-42278-9 |pages=142 |language=en}}</ref>

====Harem youth====
Muhammad was assassinated by his brother Al-Mutarrif, who had allegedly grown jealous of the favour Muhammad had gained in the eyes of their father Abdallah. Al-Mutarrif had accused Muhammad of plotting with the rebel [[Umar ibn Hafsun]], and Muhammad had been imprisoned. According to some sources, the emir himself was behind Muhammad's fall, as well as Al-Mutarrif's death in 895. Abd al-Rahman spent his youth in his mother's harem. Al-Mutarrif's sister, known as ''al-Sayyida'' ("the Lady"), was entrusted with his education. She made sure that Abd al-Rahman's education was conducted with some rigour.<ref>[[Ibn Hazm]]</ref> It was claimed that he had learned and known the local [[Mozarabic language]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Byfield|first1=Ted|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=68qCEMEZ6gwC&dq=%22Abd+al-Rahman+III%22+red+hair&pg=PA250|title=The Quest for the City : A.D. 740 to 1100 : Pursuing the Next World, They Founded this One|last2=Project|first2=Christian History|last3=Stanway|first3=Paul|date=2004|publisher=Christian History Project|isbn=978-0-9689873-6-0}}</ref>

===Accession to throne===
Emir Abdallah died at the age of 72. Despite four of his sons (Aban, Abd al Rahman, Muhammad and Ahmad) being alive at the time of his death, all of them were passed over for succession. Abdallah instead chose as his successor his grandson, Abd al-Rahman&nbsp;III (the son of his first son). This came as no surprise, since Abdallah had already demonstrated his affection for his grandson in many ways, namely by allowing him to live in his own tower (something he did not allow for any of his sons), and allowing him to sit on the throne on some festive occasions. Most importantly, Abdallah gave Abd al-Rahman his ring, the symbol of power, when Abdallah fell ill prior to his death.

Abd al-Rahman succeeded Abdallah the day after his death, 16 October 912.<ref name="EB" /> Historiographers of the time, such as ''[[Al-Bayan al-Mughrib]]'' and the ''Crónica anónima de Abd al-Rahman&nbsp;III'', state that his succession was "without incident".  At the time, Abd al-Rahman was about 21 or 22 years old. He inherited an emirate on the verge of dissolution, his power extending not far beyond the vicinity of Córdoba.<ref name="EB" /> To the north, the Christian [[Kingdom of Asturias]] was continuing its program of ''[[Reconquista]]'' in the [[Douro]] valley. To the south in [[Ifriqiya]], the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimids]] had created an independent caliphate that threatened to attract the allegiance of the Muslim population, who had suffered under the harsh rule of Abdullah. On the internal front the discontented [[Muwallad]] families (Muslims of Iberian origin) represented a constant danger for the Córdoban emir. The most powerful of the latter was Umar ibn Hafsun, who, from his impregnable fortress of [[Bobastro]], controlled much of eastern Al-Andalus.

From the very early stages of his reign, Abd al-Rahman showed a firm resolve to quash the rebels of al-Andalus, consolidate and centralise power, and re-establish internal order within the emirate. Within 10 days of taking the throne, he exhibited the head of a rebel leader in Cordoba.<ref name="EB" /> From this point on he led annual expeditions against the northern and southern tribes to maintain control over them. To accomplish his aims he introduced into the court the ''[[saqaliba]]h'', slaves of East European origin. The ''saqalibah'' represented a third ethnic group that could neutralise the endless strife between his subjects of Muslim [[Arabs|Arab]] heritage, and those of Muslim [[Berbers|Berber]] heritage.

[[Hasdai ibn Shaprut]], a Jewish courtier in the king's court who served as financier to the king, wrote of the king's revenues:
{{blockquote|The revenue of the king [Abd al-Rahman] amounts annually to 100,000 florins, this arising only from the income derived from the numerous merchants who come hither from various countries and isles. All their commerce and affairs must be subjected to my guidance, praised be the Almighty, who bestows his mercy upon me! The kings of the world no sooner perceive of the greatness of my monarch, than they hasten to convey to him presents in abundance. It is myself who am appointed to receive such presents, and at the same time to return rewards awarded to them.<ref>''Mahberet Menahem'' (ed. [[Herschell Filipowski]]), London & Edinburgh 1854 (reprinted: Jerusalem 1987), in: ''Biography of the Author (the Celebrated Rabbi Menahem ben Saruk)'', p. 7; cf. Elkan Nathan Adler, ''Jewish Travellers'', Routledge: London 1931, pp. 22–36 [''vide'' Cambridge University Library, Taylor-Schecter Collection (T-S Misc. 35.38)].</ref>}}

===Early rule===
{{more citations needed|section|date=January 2019}}
During the first 20 years of his rule, Abd al-Rahman avoided military action against the northern Christian kingdoms, Asturias and the [[Kingdom of Navarre]]. The Muwallad rebels were the first problem he confronted. Those powerful families were supported by Iberians who were openly or secretly Christians and had acted with the rebels. These elements, which formed the bulk of the population, were not averse to supporting a strong ruler who would protect them against the Arab aristocracy.<ref name=wikisource>{{EB1911|inline=1|wstitle=Abd-ar-Rahman|display=Abd-al-Rahman s.v Abd-al-Rahman III|volume=1|pages=31–32}}</ref> Abd al-Rahman moved to subdue them by means of a mercenary army that included Christians.

[[File:Spain Andalusia Cordoba BW 2015-10-27 13-54-14.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba]]]]
He first had to suppress the rebel Umar ibn Hafsun. On 1 January 913 an army, led by the eunuch Badr, conquered the fortress of [[Écija]], at some {{convert|50|km}} from the capital. All the city's fortifications were destroyed, aside from the citadel, which was left as the residence of the governor and a garrison for the emirati troops.

In the following spring, after sixty-five days of meticulous preparations, Abd al-Rahman personally led an expedition to the south of his realm. His troops were able to recover the ''[[Kura (al-Andalus)|Kūra]]''s (provinces) of [[Province of Jaén (Spain)|Jaén]] and [[Province of Granada|Granada]], while a cavalry detachment was sent to free [[Málaga]] from ibn Hafsun's siege. He also obtained the capitulation of [[Fiñana]] (in the modern [[province of Almería]]), after setting fire to its suburbs. Subsequently, he moved against the castle of [[Juviles]] in the [[Alpujarras]]. After devastating the surrounding countryside to deprive the castle of any resources, he encircled it. Finding it difficult to bombard with catapults, he ordered the construction of a platform where his [[siege engine]]s could be mounted to greater effect, and cut the water supply. The Muwallad defenders surrendered after a few days: their lives, apart from fifty-five die-hards who were beheaded, were spared in exchange for their allegiance to the emir. The campaign continued in a similar vein, lasting for a total of ninety days. Abd al-Rahman forced the defeated Muwallad to send hostages and treasures to Córdoba, in order to secure their continued submission.

During the first year of his reign, Abd al-Rahman took advantage of the rivalries between the [[zBanu Hajjaj|Banu Hajjaj]] lords of [[Seville]] and [[Carmona, Spain|Carmona]] to force them to submit. He initially sent a special corps (''hasam'') under Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Hudayr, governor of Écija, to Seville, to obtain their submission. This attempt failed, but gained him the support of Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Hayyay, lord of Carmona, and a cousin of the Sevillan lord, Ahmad ibn Maslama. When the latter was surrounded by Umayyad troops, he sued for help to Ibn Hafsun, but the latter was defeated by the besiegers and returned to Bobastro. Abd al-Rahman next went after the forts in the provinces of Elvira, [[Province of Granada|Granada]], and [[Province of Jaén (Spain)|Jaén]], all of which were either directly or indirectly controlled by Hafsun.<ref name="EB" /> Seville finally capitulated on 20 December 913. Ibn al-Mundhir al-Qurays, a member of the royal family, was named governor of the city, while the Lord of Carmona obtained the title of [[vizier]]. Muhammad ibn Ibrahim enjoyed his office for only a single day, for Abd al-Rahman soon discovered his collusion with the rebel governor of Carmona. Muhammad was sent to prison, where he later met his death.

The region of [[Valencia]] submitted peacefully in 915.

===Ibn Hafsun and other rebels===

Abd al-Rahman's next objective was to quash the long-standing rebellion of Umar ibn Hafsun.

His troops left Córdoba on 7 May 914 and, after a few days, encamped before the walls of Balda (identified with today's [[Cuevas de San Marcos]]). His cavalry ravaged the nearby woods and the countryside, while the rest of the troops moved to Turrus, a castle located in the present municipality of [[Algarinejo]], which was surrounded within five days, while its environs were also devastated.

The Umayyad army then moved to the citadel of ʿUmar ibn Hafsun, while the cavalry was sent to the castle of Sant Batir, which was abandoned by the defenders, allowing Abd al-Rahman's troops to secure a large booty. Then it was the turn of the castles of Olías and Reina. The latter fell after a violent fight, leaving the road open to the major city and provincial capital of Málaga, which he captured after one day. Abd al-Rahman then turned and followed the coast by Montemayor, near [[Benahavís]], Suhayl ([[Fuengirola]]) and another castle called ''Turrus'' or ''Turrus Jusayn'' (identified by [[Évariste Lévi-Provençal]] as [[Ojén]]). He finally arrived at [[Algeciras]] on 1 June 914. He ordered a patrol of the coast to destroy the boats that supplied the citadel of Umar ibn Hafsun from the [[Maghreb]]. Many of them were captured and set afire in front of the emir. The rebellious castles near Algeciras surrendered as soon as the Cordoban army appeared.

Abd al-Rahman launched three different campaigns against Ibn Hafsun (who died in 917) and his sons. One of Ibn Hafsun's sons, Jaʿfar ibn Hafsun, held the stronghold of Toledo. Abd al-Rahman ravaged the countryside around the city. Ja'far, after two years of siege, escaped from the city to ask for help in the northern Christian kingdoms. In the meantime Abd al-Rahman obtained the surrender of the city from its population, after promising them immunity, although 4,000 rebels escaped in a night sally. The city surrendered on 2 August 932, after a siege of two years.

In 921 the Banu Muhallab of [[Guadix]] submitted, followed by those of [[Jerez de la Frontera]] and [[Cádiz]], as well as the trading republic of [[Pechina]] a year later. In 927, Abd al-Rahman also launched a campaign against the rebel [[Banu Qasi]], but was forced to break it off following the intervention of [[Jimeno Garcés of Pamplona]].

The last of the sons of Ibn Hafsun to fall was Hafs, who commanded his powerful fortress of Umar ibn Hafsun. Surrounded by troops commanded by Abd al-Rahman's vizier, Said ibn al-Mundhir, who had ordered the construction of bastions around the city, he resisted the siege for six months,<ref name=EB/> until he surrendered in 928 and had his life spared.<ref>{{cite book|first=Hermann |last=Schreiber|title=Gli Arabi in Spagna|year=1984 |url=https://archive.org/details/gliarabiinspagna00schr |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/gliarabiinspagna00schr/page/142 142]|publisher=Garzanti}}</ref>

===The Levente and Algarve rebels===
The continued expeditions against the Hafsunids did not distract Abd al-Rahman&nbsp;III from the situation in other regions in al-Andalus, which recognized him only nominally, if not being in open revolt. Most of the loyal governors of the cities were in a weak position, such as the governor of [[Évora]], who could not prevent an attack by the king of Galicia (and future king of León), [[Ordoño II of León|Ordoño II]], who captured the city in the summer of 913, taking back a sizable booty and 4,000 prisoners and massacring many Muslims.<ref name=EB/> In most of the eastern and western provinces, Abd al-Rahman's authority was not recognized. The lord of Badajoz, Abd Allah ibn Muhammad, grandson of Abd al-Rahman ibn Marwan al-Yilliqi, not only fortified his city against a possible attack from Ordoño, but also acted in complete independence from Córdoba.

To avoid the fall of Évora into the hands of the Berber groups of the region, the governor ordered the destruction of its defensive towers and lowered the walls, though a year later he decided to reconstruct it, giving its control to his ally Masud ibn Sa' dun al-Surunbaqi. The Algarve was dominated completely by a muladí coalition led by Saʿid ibn Mal, who had expelled the Arabs from [[Beja (Portugal)|Beja]], and the lords of [[Faro, Portugal|Ocsónoba]], Yahya ibn Bakr, and of [[Taifa of Niebla|Niebla]], Ibn Ufayr. [[Alcácer do Sal]] and [[Lisbon]] were under the control of the [[Banu Dānis]].

The absence of royal authority enabled Ordoño&nbsp;II to easily campaign in this area, his main objective being the city of [[Mérida, Spain|Mérida]], in the summer of 915. Abd al-Rahman&nbsp;III did not send an army and only several local Berber ''jefes'' offered some resistance which was ineffective.

===Assumption of the Caliphate===
{{Quote box
 |title = Letter proclaiming Abd al-Rahman III's assumption of the caliphal title
 |quote = We are the most worthy to fulfill our right, and the most entitled to complete our good fortune, and to put on the clothing granted by the nobility of God, because of the favour which He has shown us, and the renown which He has given us, and the power to which He has raised us, because of what He has enabled us to acquire, and because of what He has made easy for us and for our state [? dynasty; {{Langx|ar|[[wiktionary:دولة|dawla]]}}] to achieve; He has made our name and the greatness of our power celebrated everywhere; and He has made the hopes of the worlds depend on us <nowiki>[</nowiki>{{Langx|ar|[[wiktionary:علق|a‘laqa]]}}<nowiki>]</nowiki>, and made their errings turn again to us and their rejoicing at good news be (rejoicing at good news) about our dynasty <nowiki>[</nowiki>{{Langx|ar|[[wiktionary:دولة|dawla]]}}<nowiki>]</nowiki>. And praise be to God, possessed of grace and kindness, for the grace which He has shown, [God] most worthy of superiority for the superiority which He has granted us. We have decided that the ''[[Dawah|da‘wa]]'' should be to us as [[Amir al-Mu'minin|Commander of the Faithful]] and that letters emanating from us or coming to us should be [headed] in the same manner. Everyone who calls himself by this name apart from ourselves is arrogating it to himself [unlawfully] and trespassing upon it and is branded with something to which he has no right. We know that if we were to continue [allowing] the neglect of this duty which is owed to us in this matter then we should be forfeiting our right and neglecting our title, which is certain. So order the ''[[Khatib|khaṭīb]]'' in your place to pronounce [the ''[[Khutbah|khuṭba]]''] using [this title] and address your communications to us accordingly, if God will. Written on Thursday, 2 [[Dhu al-Hijjah|Dhū al-Ḥijja]] 316 [16 January 929].
 |source = Translated by David Wasserstein<ref name="Wasserstein"/>
 |width = 45%}}
Despite having defeated only some of the rebels, Abd al-Rahman&nbsp;III considered himself powerful enough to declare himself [[Caliph of Córdoba]] on 16 January 929, effectively breaking his allegiance to, and ties with, the [[Fatimid]] and [[Abbasid]] caliphs.<ref>[http://www.allaboutphilosophy.org/abd-al-Rahman-iii.htm Abd-al-Rahman&nbsp;III] {{dead link|date=August 2020|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> The caliphate was thought only to belong to the Emperor who ruled over the sacred cities of [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]], and his ancestors had until then been content with the title of emir. But the force of this tradition had weakened over time; and the title increased Abd al-Rahman's prestige with his subjects, both in Iberia and Africa.<ref name=wikisource/> He based his claim to the caliphate on his Umayyad ancestors who had held undisputed control of the caliphate until they were overthrown by the Abbasids.

Abd al-Rahman's move made him both the political and the religious leader of all the Muslims in al-Andalus, as well as the protector of his Christian and Jewish subjects. The symbols of his new caliphal power were a sceptre (''jayzuran'') and the throne (''sarir''). In the mint he had founded in November 928, Abd al-Rahman started to mint gold dinars<ref>No gold Islamic coins had been found in Spain preceding Abd al-Rahman&nbsp;III's reign. See Schreiber, ''Gli Arabi in Spagna'', p. 143.</ref> and silver dirhams, replacing the "al-Andalus" title with his name.

In his new role as caliph, he achieved the surrender of [[Ibn Marwan]] of Badajoz in 930 as well as the surrender of the Banu Dānis of Alcácer do Sal. On the southern front, to counter the increasing Fatimid power in North Africa, abd al-Rahmad ordered the construction of a fleet based in [[Almeria]]. The caliph helped the [[Maghrawa]] Berbers conquer [[Melilla]] (927), [[Ceuta]] (931)<ref name=EB/> and [[Tangiers]] (951), who, in return, accepted his suzerainty. However, he was unable to defeat [[Jawhar al-Siqilli]] of the [[Fatimid]]s.<ref name=EB/> In 951 he signed a peace with the new king of León, [[Ordoño III of León|Ordoño III]], in order to have a free hand against the Fatimids whose ships were harassing caliphal shipping in the Mediterranean and had even launched an assault against Almeria. Abd al-Rahman's force, led by prime minister Ahmad ibn Said, besieged the Fatimid port of Tunis, which bought its safety by paying a huge sum.<ref>Schreiber, ''Gli Arabi in Spagna'', p. 154</ref>

In the end he was able to create a protectorate covering the northern and central Maghreb, supporting the [[Idrisid]] dynasty; the Caliphate's influence in the area disappeared after a Fatimid offensive in 958, after which abd al-Rahman kept only the strongholds of Ceuta and Tangiers.

===War with the Christian kingdoms of the north===
Even before al-Andalus was firmly under his rule, he had restarted the war against King [[Ordoño&nbsp;II of León]], who had taken advantage of the previous troublesome situation to capture some boundary areas and menace the Umayyad territory. In 917 the then emir had sent a large army under his general Ahmad ibn Abi Abda against León, but this force was destroyed at the [[Battle of San Esteban de Gormaz (917)|Battle of San Esteban de Gormaz]] in September of that year.

Recognizing he had underestimated the power of Ordoño&nbsp;II, in 920 Abd al-Rahman mustered another powerful army to reclaim the territories lost after the previous campaign. He captured the forts of [[Osma]] and [[San Esteban de Gormaz]].<ref name=EB/> After defeating King [[Sancho Garcés I of Navarre]] and the king of [[Kingdom of León|León]] at [[Battle of Valdejunquera|Valdejunquera]] on 26 July,<ref name=EB/> he penetrated into Navarre, overcoming Aragon by the classic route of the invasions from the south. Abd al-Rahman reached the Basque city of [[Pamplona]], which was sacked and its cathedral church demolished.

In 924 Abd al-Rahman felt obliged to avenge the massacre of Viguera castle perpetrated by King Sancho Ordóñez of Navarre one year earlier. He launched a counter offensive against Sancho in which Abd al-Rahman devastated a large area of Basque territory.<ref>{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qVYT4Kraym0C&dq=Abd-al-Rahman++III+zaragoza&pg=PA435| title = Al Maqqari, Nafh at-Tih, I| page= 363| isbn = 978-9231041532| last1 = Hareir| first1 = Idris El| last2 = Mbaye| first2 = Ravane| date =  2011| publisher = UNESCO}}</ref>

The succession crisis which struck León after Ordoño&nbsp;II's death in the same year caused hostilities to cease until [[Ramiro II of León|Ramiro&nbsp;II]] gained the throne in 932; a first attempt by him to assist the besieged rebels in Toledo was [[Siege of Toledo (930–32)|repelled]] in 932, despite the Christian king capturing [[Madrid]].

In 934, after reasserting supremacy over Pamplona and [[Álava]], Abd al-Rahman forced Ramiro to retreat to [[Burgos]], and forced the Navarrese queen [[Toda of Navarre|Toda]], his aunt, to submit to him as a vassal and withdraw from direct rule as regent for her son [[García Sánchez I of Pamplona|García Sánchez I]]. In 937 Abd al-Rahman conquered some thirty castles in León. Next he turned to Muhammad ibn Hashim al-Tugib, governor of [[Zaragoza]], who had allied with Ramiro but was pardoned after the capture of his city.

Despite early defeats, Ramiro and García were able to crush the caliphal army in 939 at the [[Battle of Simancas]], and almost kill Abd al-Rahman,<ref name=EB/> due to treason by Arab elements in the caliph's army. After this defeat, Abd al-Rahman stopped taking personal command of his military campaigns. His cause was helped, however, by [[Fernán González of Castile]], one of the Christian leaders at Simancas, who subsequently launched a sustained rebellion against Ramiro. The victory of Simancas enabled the Christian kingdom to maintain the military initiative in the peninsula until the defeat of Ramiro's successor, [[Ordoño III of León]], in 956. However, they did not press this advantage as civil war broke out in the Christian territories.

[[File:Dirham abd al rahman iii 17493.jpg|thumb|Dirham of Abd al-Rahman&nbsp;III, minted in Medina Azahara in 959/960&nbsp;AD]] 
In 950 Abd al-Rahman received in Córdoba an embassy from count [[Borrell II of Barcelona]], by which the northern county recognized caliphal supremacy in exchange for peace and mutual support. In 958, [[Sancho I of León|Sancho]], the exiled king of León, King García Sánchez of Pamplona, and his mother Queen Toda all paid homage to Abd al-Rahman in [[Caliphate of Córdoba|Córdoba]].<ref name=EB/>

Until 961, the caliphate played an active role in the dynastic strife characterising the Christian kingdoms during the period. Ordoño&nbsp;III's half-brother and successor, Sancho the Fat, had been deposed by his cousin [[Ordoño IV of León|Ordoño&nbsp;IV]]. Together with his grandmother Toda of Pamplona, Sancho sought an alliance with Córdoba. In exchange for some castles, Abd al-Rahman helped them to take back [[Zamora, Spain|Zamora]] (959) and [[Oviedo]] (960) and to overthrow Ordoño&nbsp;IV.

===Later years===
Abd al-Rahman was accused of retreating in his later years into the "self-indulgent" comforts of his [[harem]].<ref name=wikisource/> Indeed, he is known to have openly kept a male as well as a female harem (in common with a few other rulers such as [[Hisham II]] and [[Al-Mu'tamid]]).<ref>''Encyclopedia of Medieval Iberia'', ed. Michael Gerli (New York: Routledge, 2003), 398–399.</ref> This likely influenced the polemical story of his sexual attraction for a 13-year-old boy (later enshrined as a Christian martyr and canonised as [[Pelagius of Córdoba|Saint Pelagius of Córdoba]]) who refused the Caliph's advances. This story may have been a construct on top of an original tale, however, in which he ordered the boy-slave to convert to Islam. Either way, enraged, he had the boy tortured and dismembered, thus contributing to the Christian perception of Muslim brutality.<ref>Walter Andrews and Mehmet Kalpaklı, ''The Age of Beloveds'', Duke University Press, 2005; p. 2</ref><ref>Mark D. Jordan, ''The Invention of Sodomy in Christian Theology'', Chicago, 1997; pp. 10–28</ref>

Abd al-Rahman spent the rest of his years in his new palace outside Córdoba. He died on 15 October 961 and was succeeded by his son [[al-Hakam&nbsp;II]].