Editing Abbas Mirza (section)

==Biography==
=== Background and early life ===
[[Image:A Large Portrait of Crown Prince 'Abbas Mirza, attributable to Mihr 'Ali, Persia, Qajar, circa 1800.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Abbas Mirza, attributable to [[Mihr 'Ali]], dated {{circa|1800}}]]
Abbas Mirza was born on 26 August 1789 in the village of [[Neva, Mazandaran|Nava]] in [[Mazandaran]], [[northern Iran]].{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp=79–84}} He was the fourth son of [[Fath-Ali Shah Qajar]] ({{reign|1797|1834}}), the second [[Qajar dynasty|Qajar]] [[shah]] (king) of Iran and part of the Qovanlu branch of the [[Qajar (tribe)|Qajar tribe]].{{sfn|Werner|2012}}{{sfn|Amanat|1999|pp=407–421}} His mother was [[Asiya Khanom Devellu]], a daughter of Fath-Ali Khan Davalu and part of the Davalu branch of the Qajars.{{sfn|Werner|2012}} This union was arranged by Abbas Mirza's grand-uncle [[Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar]] ({{reign|1789|1797}}) in an effort to unite the Qovanlu and Davalu.{{sfn|Werner|2012}}{{sfn|Lahouti|2015}}

Thus, the line of Abbas Mirza and his offspring served as the foundation for all of Agha Mohammad Khan's expectations for the continuation of his dynasty. During Fath-Ali Shah's rule in Iran, a European traveler heard a rumor that Agha Mohammad Khan would have chosen Abbas Mirza instead of Fath-Ali Shah as shah if he had lived longer. Fath-Ali Shah's eldest son, [[Mohammad-Ali Mirza Dowlatshah]], whose mother was a [[Georgians|Georgian]] concubine, was excluded from the succession due to this obsession with settling tribal disputes amongst the Qajars.{{sfn|Hambly|1991|pp=142–143}} A fierce hostility would grow between Abbas Mirza and Dowlatshah, something some people speculated that Fath-Ali Shah welcomed. Besides Dowlatshah, intense competition would emerge with other brothers; [[Mohammad Vali Mirza]], a ferocious and uncontrollable person who would hold the governorship of [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] and then [[Yazd]], and [[Hossein Ali Mirza]], a persistent schemer would hold the governorship of [[Fars province|Fars]].{{sfn|Hambly|1991|pp=150}} Like Fath-Ali Shah had been given the royal title of ''Jahanbani'' by Agha Mohammad Khan, he also gave his own sons and daughters a royal title. The title of ''dorr-e darya-e khosravy'' ("The Pearl of the Sea of Royalty") was given to Abbas Mirza.{{sfn|Behrooz|2023|p=51}}

The conflict in the [[Azerbaijan (Iran)|Azerbaijan]] and [[Caucasus]] regions between Iran and the [[Russian Empire]] was prevalent throughout the time that Abbas Mirza was growing up.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp=79–84}} In 1797, at the age of eight, he was taken by Agha Mohammad Khan on a campaign against the [[Karabakh Khanate]]. He and the other princes stayed at Adina Bazar near [[Ardabil]], and after Agha Mohammad Khan's murder that June, he was taken back to the capital of [[Tehran]].{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp=79–84}} The death of Agha Mohammad Khan gave rise to a number of pretenders to the throne.{{sfn|Bournoutian|1976|p=164}}

=== Appointment as crown prince and governor of Azerbaijan ===
After making sure that his competitors did not constitute a threat, Fath-Ali Shah ascended to the kingdom on [[Nowruz]] (Iranian new year) on 21 March 1798.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp=79–84}} On March 20, 1799, he chose Abbas Mirza as the crown prince and gave him the title of ''Nayeb-al-saltana'' (viceregent).{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp=79–84}}{{sfn|Werner|2012}} Iranian sources report that the title was in line with Agha Mohammad Khan's wishes.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp=79–84}} Abbas Mirza was given [[Soleyman Khan Qajar]] and [[Mirza Bozorg Qa'em-Maqam]] as his [[adjutant]]s.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp=79–84}} Mirza Bozorg, one of the most skilled statesmen of the early Qajar era,{{sfn|Amanat|2017|p=188}} served as the tutor and minister of Abbas Mirza.{{sfn|Werner|2012}}{{sfn|Lahouti|2015}}

Around the same time, Abbas Mirza was appointed the governor of the vulnerable province Azerbaijan with [[Tabriz]] as his regional capital.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp=79–84}} As the most rich and populous city in the realm, it would rise to prominence as the hub of a thriving trade with Europe for the remainder of the 18th-century.{{sfn|Amanat|2017|p=189}} In order to balance out Azerbaijan's regional autonomy, there were numerous less important seats in [[Kerman]], [[Isfahan]], and [[Kurdistan province|Kurdistan]] as well as at least three more strong princely seats in the south, west, and east. Hossein Ali Mirza was given the governorship of Fars and the [[Persian Gulf]] provinces, where he preserved autonomy. In an identical fashion, Dowlatshah was given a sizable domain in western Iran. The princes were pushed to demonstrate their value by  expanding their territories along Iran's borders in addition to restoring the economy and establishing peace in their lands.{{sfn|Amanat|2017|pp=189–190}} Despite the fact that Abbas Mirza's brothers often settled down in the provincial capitals, he did not always reside in Tabriz.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp=79–84}}

After becoming governor, Abbas Mirza was sent to defeat the Kurdish chieftain [[Jafar Qoli Khan Donboli]], who was making a claim to Azerbaijan's territory.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp=79–84}} But it was Soleyman Khan who was given actual leadership of the campaign.{{sfn|Werner|2012}} After winning a battle near [[Salmas]], Abbas Mirza marched to [[Khoy]] before heading back to Tabriz.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp=79–84}}

===First war with Russia===
[[File:Political map of the eastern part of the Southern Caucasus between 1795–1801.svg|thumb|300px|Political map of the eastern part of the [[Southern Caucasus]] between 1795 and 1801]]
The reign of the Russian [[tsar]] (emperor) [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I]] ({{reign|1801|1825}}) saw an increased desire on the part of the Russians to increase their presence and influence in the Caucasus, where they had already shown interest since the 1760s. Prince [[Pavel Tsitsianov]], who Alexander I appointed to oversee Caucasian affairs in 1803, had nothing against about using violence, but any infringement of Iran's control over the Caucasus was not something that the Qajar administration could just ignore. Since 1502, Iran had controlled the Caucasus and the Iranians saw it as a natural extension of their country.{{sfn|Pourjavady|2023}} In mid-January 1804, Tsitsianov [[Siege of Ganja (1804)|invaded Ganja and conquered its fortress]]; its governor, [[Javad Khan]], was killed, and between 1,500 and 3,000 residents were slaughtered.{{sfn|Pourjavady|2023}}{{sfn|Daniel|2001|pp=86–90}} Russian law replaced Islamic law, and the congregational mosque was transformed into a church. This marked the beginning of the first Russo-Iranian War. On May 23, 1804, Fath-Ali Shah ordered Russian forces to depart from Iranian territories in the Caucasus. Iran interpreted their unwillingness to comply with this as an act of war.{{sfn|Pourjavady|2023}}

Fath-Ali Shah designated Abbas Mirza as the leader of the Iranian army against the Russians, and gave the order to mobilize a sizable force of 20,000 soldiers towards [[Erivan]]. Since Abbas Mirza was only fifteen at the time, his leadership would have been more symbolic than actual, yet he nonetheless actively took part in the war and displayed bravery as a military commander. Fath-Ali Shah also assigned experienced tutors and commanders to assist Abbas Mirza, which included figures such as Mirza Bozorg, Soleyman Khan, Ali Qoli Khan Shahsevan, Ali Qoli Khan Sartip Qajar, [[Pir Qoli Khan Qajar]], [[Sadeq Khan Qajar]], and [[Mehdi Qoli Khan Qajar]].{{sfn|Behrooz|2023|p=61}}

Abbas Mirza's aid was eagerly solicited by both England and [[Napoleon]], anxious to checkmate one another in the East,<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|inline=1|wstitle=Abbas Mirza|volume=1|page=10}}</ref> especially as Persia bordered a common rival, namely Imperial Russia. Preferring the friendship of France, Abbas Mirza continued the war against Russia's young [[General Kotlyarevsky]], aged only twenty-nine but his new ally could give him very little assistance.<ref>Hopkirk, pp. 60-63</ref> The early stages of the war following Fath Ali Shah's orders to invade and regain Georgia and the northern parts of the contemporary Azerbaijani Republic ended up in years of relatively territorial stale warfare. However, as Prof. [[Alexander Mikaberidze]] notes, Abbas Mirza led the army in an overall disastrous campaign against the Russians, suffering defeats at [[Gyumri]], [[Kalagiri]], the [[Zagam River]] (1805), [[Karakapet]] (1806), [[Qarababa, Nakhchivan|Karababa]] (1808), [[Ganja, Azerbaijan|Ganja]] (1809), [[Meghri]], the [[Aras River]], and [[Akhalkalaki]] (1810).{{sfn|Mikaberidze|2011|page=2}} The tide started to decisively turn as Russia was sending more and more advanced weaponry and increasing numbers of soldiers. Commanding the southernmost Russian divisions during the long war, Kotlyarevsky defeated the numerically superior Persian army in the [[Battle of Aslanduz]] (1812) and in early 1813 [[Storming of Lankaran|stormed and took Lankaran]]. The Russians were encamped on the opposite bank of River Aras when his two British advisers, Capt Christie and Lt Pottinger, told him to post sentry pickets in short order, but Mirza ignored the warnings. Christie and other British officers tried to rally an army retreating in panic; for days the Russians launched fierce assaults, but at last Christie fell, and Mirza ordered a full retreat. Complacency cost 10,000 Persian lives; Mirza believing wrongly in the weight of superior numbers. In spite of the absence of leadership, the Persians at [[Lankaran|Lenkoran]] held out for weeks until, breaking through, the Russians slaughtered the garrison of 4,000 officers and men.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

In October 1813, with Abbas Mirza still commander-in-chief, Persia was compelled to make a severely disadvantageous peace known as the [[Treaty of Gulistan]], irrevocably ceding swaths of its territory in the [[Caucasus]], comprising present-day [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Dagestan]], and most of what most recently became the [[Republic of Azerbaijan]].<ref>Timothy C. Dowling [https://books.google.com/books?id=KTq2BQAAQBAJ&dq=russo+persian+war+1804-1813&pg=PA728 ''Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond''] p 728 ABC-CLIO, 2 dec. 2014 {{ISBN|1598849484}}</ref> The only promise the Shah received in return was a lukewarm guarantee that Mirza would succeed to his throne, without let or hindrance.  Persia's dire losses attracted the attention of the British Empire; following the reversal of initial successes, the Russians now posed a serious threat from the Caucasus.<ref>Hopkirk, pp. 65-68</ref>

=== War with the Ottoman Empire ===
{{Main|Ottoman–Persian War (1821–1823)}}
[[Image:An official copy of the treaty of Erzurum, Persia, Qajar, 19th Century.jpg|thumb|An official copy of the [[Treaty of Erzurum]]. [[Persian language|Persian]] manuscript, created in Qajar Iran, 19th century]]
The conflict between Iranian and Ottoman border authorities was a major factor in the decline of Iranian-Ottoman relations between 1818 and 1820. Political issues in the Kurdish principality [[Baban]] renewed the animosity between Dowlatshah and the Ottoman governors of [[Baghdad]], [[Sulaymaniyah]], and [[Shahrizur]] in the central and southern sections of the Iranian-Ottoman frontier. The relation between Abbas Mirza and the Ottoman ''[[serasker]]'' of [[Erzurum]] was also made worse due to a dispute over the control of the nomadic tribes that inhabited the northern frontier.{{sfn|Shahvar|2020a|pp=562–563}} Abbas Mirza first opted for a diplomatic solution to the problems, and the British supported him in this decision. They made every effort to keep the Iranians and Ottomans from fighting each other, as it could weaken both sides and thus make it easier for the Russians to advance further south to India.{{sfn|Shahvar|2020a|p=563}}{{sfn|Shahvar|2020b|p=125}}

The Iranians and Ottomans were unable to find a solution, and following the eruption of the [[Greek war of independence]] against the Ottomans in 1821, Abbas Mirza offered Russia that they make a joint assault on the Ottoman Empire. He may have believed that a joint assault on the Ottoman Empire would deter Russia from considering additional attacks against Iran or at the very least further weaken the Russian military. His offer was declined by Russia, who nevertheless encouraged Iran to attack the Ottomans, even offering them financial help. The Russians may have hoped that a conflict between Iran and the Ottoman Empire would weaken them both, thus making it easier for them to advance further south.{{sfn|Shahvar|2020a|p=563}}

In the same year, Dowlatshah invaded [[Ottoman Iraq]], reaching as far as the walls of Baghdad.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp=79–84}} Dowlatshah was forced to leave due to a [[cholera epidemic]], which he later contracted himself in November. While a second Iranian force conquered [[Bitlis]] and pushed towards [[Diyarbakr]], Abbas Mirza distinguished himself by capturing [[Doğubayazıt|Bayazit]] and Toprak Qala and marching on to Erzerum. In May 1822 at Khoy, Abbas Mirza successfully defeated the Ottoman counterattack, but by this point, cholera had also spread throughout his force, leading him to sue for peace.{{sfn|Hambly|1991|p=163}} In contrast to earlier conflicts, no [[Anti-Shi'ism|anti-Shia]] [[fatwa]]s were ever declared by the Ottoman clergy to support the war. During peace negotiations, the Ottoman [[Shaykh al-Islam]] sent a letter to Abbas Mirza, in which he praised their friendship and referred Iran and the Ottoman Empire as "two great countries that are as one body."{{sfn|Tucker|2006|pp=561–564}}

=== Second war with Russia ===
[[File:Treaty_of_Turkmenchay_by_Moshkov.jpg|thumb|Abbas Mirza with [[Ivan Paskevich]] at the signing of the [[Treaty of Turkmenchay]], 1828]]
His [[Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)|second war with Russia]], which began in 1826, started off on a good note as he won back most of the territory lost in the [[Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)]]; however it ended in a string of costly defeats after which Persia was forced to cede the last of its Caucasian territories, comprising all of what is modern day [[Armenia]], [[Nakhichevan Khanate|Nakhchivan]], the rest of the remainder of the contemporary Azerbaijani Republic that was still in Iranian hands, and [[Iğdır Province]], all conform the 1828 [[Treaty of Turkmenchay]].<ref>Timothy C. Dowling [https://books.google.com/books?id=KTq2BQAAQBAJ&dq=russo+persian+war+1804-1813&pg=PA728 ''Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond''] p 729 ABC-CLIO, 2 December 2014; {{ISBN|1598849484}}</ref> The eventual loss was due less to his army's skill and more to do with lack of reinforcements and overwhelming superiority in numbers. The irrevocable losses, which in total amounted up for all of Qajar Iran's territories in the [[North Caucasus]] and the [[South Caucasus]], affected Abbas Mirza severely and his health began to suffer. He also lost enthusiasm for any more military reform.<ref name=EB>{{harvnb|Hoiberg|2010|p=10}}</ref>

In an effort to make up for his losses by winning over less powerful foes and bolster his claim to the throne, Abbas Mirza invaded the areas east and northeast of [[Mashhad]] in the summer and fall of 1832, taking control of [[Khabushan]], [[Sarakhs]], and [[Torbat-e Heydarieh]].{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp=79–84}} Under continuous medical care by both Western and Iranian physicians, Abbas Mirza ultimately died of illness on 25 October 1833 in Mashhad.{{sfn|Werner|2012}} Fath-Ali Shah died the following year, being succeeded by Abbas Mirza's son Mohammad Mirza, who assumed the regnal name of [[Mohammad Shah Qajar]] ({{reign|1834|1848}}).{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp=79–84}}