Editing 1929 (section)

==Summary==

===Middle East, Asia, and Pacific Isles===
On [[August 1]] of this year the [[1929 Palestine riots]] broke out between [[Arabs]] and [[Jews]] over control of the [[Western Wall]]. The rioting, initiated in part when British police tore down a screen the Jews had constructed in front of the Wall,<ref name=segev>{{cite book|last=Segev|first=Tom|author-link=Tom Segev|title=One Palestine, Complete|year=1999|publisher=Metropolitan Books|isbn=0-8050-4848-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/onepalestinecomp00sege/page/295 295–313]|url=https://archive.org/details/onepalestinecomp00sege/page/295}}</ref> continued until the end of the month. In total, 133 Jews and 116 Arabs were killed.<ref>{{cite news|first=Matthew B.|last=Stannard|title=A Time of Change; Israelis, Palestinians and the Disengagement|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2005/08/09/MNGF6E53GL1.DTL|work=San Francisco Chronicle|date=2005-08-09}}</ref>

Early in 1929, the [[Afghan Civil War (1928–1929)|Afghan Civil War]] saw the Afghan leader [[King Amanullah]] lose power to the [[Saqqawists]] under [[Habibullāh Kalakāni]]. Kalakani's rule, however, only lasted nine months. [[Mohammed Nadir Shah|Nadir Shah]] replaced him in October, starting a line of monarchs which would last 40 years.<ref>pp. 41–44 {{ISBN|0-8133-4019-5}}</ref> In India, a general strike in Bombay continued throughout the year despite efforts by the British.<ref>Chandavarkar, Rajnarayan. ''Imperial Power and Popular Politics.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. pp. 170–178 {{ISBN|0-521-59692-0}}</ref> On [[December 29]], the [[All India Congress]] in [[Lahore]] declared Indian [[independence]] from Britain, something it had threatened to do if Britain did not grant India dominion status.<ref>Vohra, Ranbir. ''The Making of India.'' Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 2001. pp. 147–148 {{ISBN|0-7656-0712-3}}</ref> China and Russia engaged in a [[Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)|minor conflict]] after China seized full control of the [[Manchurian Chinese Eastern Railway]]. Russia counterattacked and took the cities of [[Hailar District|Hailar]] and [[Manzhouli]] after issuing an ultimatum demanding joint control of the railway to be reinstated. The Chinese agreed to the terms on [[November 26]]. The Japanese would later see this defeat as a sign of Chinese weakness, leading to their taking control of Manchuria.<ref>Elleman, Bruce. ''Diplomacy and Deception.'' Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 1997. pp. 282–283 {{ISBN|0-7656-0143-5}}</ref> The Far East began to experience economic problems late in the year as the effects of the Great Depression began to spread. Southeast Asia was especially hard hit as its exports (spice, rubber, and other commodities) were more sensitive to economic problems.<ref>Tarling, Nicholas. ''The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. pp. 182–184 {{ISBN|0-521-66371-7}}</ref> In the Pacific, on [[December 28]] – "[[Mau movement#Black Saturday|Black Saturday]]" in [[Samoa]] – New Zealand colonial police killed 11 unarmed demonstrators, an event which led the [[Mau movement]] to demand independence for Samoa.<ref name=Meleisea/>

===Europe===

====Western====
In 1929, the [[Italian Fascism|Fascist Party in Italy]] tightened its control. National education policy took a major step towards being completely taken over by the agenda of indoctrination.<ref name=" Pauley_2">{{cite book|title=Hitler, Stalin, and Mussolini: Totalitarianism in the Twentieth Century|last=Pauley|first=Bruce F.|year=2003|publisher=Harlan Davidson|location=Wheeling|page=117}}</ref> In that year, the Fascist government took control of the authorization of all textbooks, all secondary school teachers were required to take an oath of loyalty to Fascism, and children began to be taught that they owed the same loyalty to Fascism as they did to God.<ref name=" Pauley_2"/>

On February 11, the [[Kingdom of Italy]] and the [[Holy See]] signed the [[Lateran Treaty]], making [[Vatican City]] a sovereign state.<ref>{{cite book|title=Italy from Revolution to Republic|last=Scala|first=DI|author2=M. Spencer|author3=D.I. Scala|year=2004|publisher=Westview Press|location=Boulder|isbn=0-8133-4176-0|pages=262–263}}</ref> On [[July 25]], [[Pope Pius XI]] emerged from the [[Apostolic Palace|Vatican]] and entered St. Peter's Square in a huge procession witnessed by about 250,000 persons, thus ending nearly 60 years of [[Prisoner in the Vatican|papal self-imprisonment within the Vatican]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Prisoner of the Vatican|last=Kertzer|first=David|year=2004|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|location=Boston|isbn=0-618-22442-4|pages=292–293}}</ref> Italy used the diplomatic prestige associated with this successful agreement to adopt a more aggressive foreign policy.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Vatican and Italian Fascism, 1929-32|last=Pollard|first=John|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=0-521-02366-1|pages=74–76}}</ref> Germany experienced a major turning point in this year due to the economic crash. The country had experienced prosperity under the government of the [[Weimar Republic]] until foreign investors withdrew their German interests. This began the crumbling of the Republican government in favor of Nazism.<ref>{{cite book|title=Weimar and Nazi Germany|last=Lee|first=Stephen|year=1996|publisher=Heinemann|location=London|isbn=0-435-30920-X|pages=38–39}}</ref> In 1929, the number of unemployed reached three million.<ref>Gilbert, Martin. ''A History of the Twentieth Century.'' New York: Avon books, 1998. {{ISBN|0-380-71393-4}}</ref> On [[July 27]], the [[Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War (1929)|Geneva Convention]], held in Switzerland, addressed the treatment of prisoners of war in response to problems encountered during World War I.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/INTRO/305?OpenDocument|title=Treaties, States parties, and Commentaries - Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War, 1929|website=www.icrc.org}}</ref>

On [[May 31]], the [[1929 United Kingdom general election|British general election]] returned a hung parliament yet again, with the Liberals in position to determine who would have power. These elections were known as the "Flapper" elections due to the fact that it was the first British election in which women under 30 could vote.<ref>{{cite book|title=Gender, Modernity, and the Popular Press in Inter-War Britain|last=Bingham|first=Adrian|year=2004|publisher=Clarendon|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-927247-6|page=125}}</ref> A week after the vote, on [[June 7]] the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]] conceded power rather than ally with the Liberals. [[Ramsay MacDonald]] founded a new [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] government the next day.<ref>{{cite book|title=Twentieth-Century Britain|first=William|last=Rubinstein|year=2003|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|location=Basingstoke|isbn=0-333-77224-5|pages=165–169}}</ref>

1929 is regarded as a turning point by [[French historians]], who point out that it was last year in which prosperity was felt before the effects of the Great Depression. The [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]] had been in power since before World War I. On July 24, French prime minister [[Raymond Poincaré]] resigned for medical reasons; he was succeeded by [[Aristide Briand]]. Briand adopted a foreign policy of both peace and defensive fortification. The [[Kellogg–Briand Pact]], renouncing [[war]] as an instrument of [[foreign policy]], went into effect in this year (it was first signed in Paris in [[1928]] by most leading world powers).<ref>{{cite book|title=Triumph and Downfall|last=Louria|first=Margot|year=2001|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport|isbn=0-313-31272-9|pages=137–138}}</ref> The French began work on the [[Maginot Line]] in this year, as a defense against a possible German attack, and on September 5 Briand presented a plan for the ''United States of Europe''.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Decline of the Third Republic, 1914-1938|last=Bernard|first=Philippe|year=1985|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=0-521-35854-X|page=173}}</ref> On October 22, Briand was replaced as prime minister by [[André Tardieu]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Lights That Failed |last=Steiner|first=Zara|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-822114-2|page=828}}</ref> [[Miguel Primo de Rivera|Primo de Rivera]]'s dictatorship in Spain experienced growing dissatisfaction among students and academics, as well as businessmen who blamed the government for recent economic woes. Many called for a fascist regime, like that in Italy.<ref>{{cite book|title=Fascism in Spain, 1923-1977|url=https://archive.org/details/fascisminspain1900payn|url-access=registration|last=Payne|first=Stanley|year=1999|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|location=Madison|isbn=0-299-16564-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fascisminspain1900payn/page/36 36–37]}}</ref>

==== Eastern ====
In May, [[Joseph Stalin]] consolidated his power in the [[Soviet Union]] by sending [[Leon Trotsky]] into exile. The only country that would grant Trotsky asylum was Turkey, in return for his help during Turkey's civil war. He and his family left the USSR aboard ship on February 12.<ref>Brackman, Roman. ''The Secret File of Joseph Stalin''. London: Frank Cass, 2001. pp. 202–203 {{ISBN|0-7146-5050-1}}</ref> Stalin turned on his former political ally, [[Nikolai Bukharin]], who was the last real threat to his power. By the end of the year Bukharin had been defeated.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Martyred for Communism |url=https://www.hoover.org/research/martyred-communism |access-date=2025-04-06 |website=Hoover Institution |language=en}}</ref> Once Stalin was in power, he turned his former support for Lenin's [[New Economic Policy]] into opposition.<ref>Alexander, Robert. ''International Trotskyism, 1929-1985.'' Durham: Duke University Press, 1991. p. 3 {{ISBN|0-8223-1066-X}}</ref> In November, Stalin declared that it "The Year of the [[Great Break (USSR)|Great Breakthrough]]" and stated that the country would focus on industrial programs as well as on collectivizing the grain supply. He hoped to surpass the West not only in agriculture, but in industry.<ref>[[Helen Rappaport|Rappaport, Helen]]. ''Joseph Stalin: a Biographical Companion''. City: ABC-Clio Inc., 1999. p. 119 {{ISBN|1-57607-084-0}}</ref> Millions of Soviet farmers were removed from their private farms, their property was collected, and they were moved to state-owned farms. Stalin emphasized in 1929 a campaign demonizing [[kulak]]s as a plague on society. Kulak property was taken and they were deported by cattle train to areas of frozen tundra.<ref>Gilbert, 761–2</ref>

The timber market in Finland began to decline in 1929 due to the Great Depression, as well as the Soviet Union's entrance into the market. Financial and political problems culminated in the birth of the fascist [[Lapua Movement]] on [[November 23]] in a demonstration in [[Lapua]]. The movement's stated aim was Finnish democracy and anti-communism.<ref>Singleton, Frederick and Anthony Upton. ''A Short History of Finland''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. p. 117; {{ISBN|0-521-64701-0}}</ref> The Finnish legislature received heavy pressure to remove basic rights from Communist groups.<ref>Capoccia, Giovanni. Defending Democracy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005. p. 153–154 {{ISBN|0-8018-8038-6}}</ref> Politics in Lithuania was heated, as President Voldemaras was unpopular in some quarters, and survived an assassination attempt in [[Kaunas]].<ref name="Vaicikonis">[http://www.lituanus.org/1984_3/84_3_06.htm Kristina Vaičikonis. ''Augustinas Voldemaras''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170423015346/http://www.lituanus.org/1984_3/84_3_06.htm|date=April 23, 2017}}. Lituanus, Vol. 30, No. 3, Fall 1984, ed. [[Antanas Klimas]]; {{ISSN|0024-5089}}</ref> Later, while attending a meeting of the [[League of Nations]], he was ousted in a coup by President [[Antanas Smetona|Smetona]], who made himself dictator. Upon Voldemaras' removal from office, [[Iron Wolf (organization)|Geležinis Vilkas]] went underground and received aid and encouragement in its activities from Germany.<ref name=" Vaicikonis"/> The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was renamed the "Kingdom of Yugoslavia" as [[Alexander I of Yugoslavia|King Alexander]] sought to unite the South Slavs under his rule.<ref>Lukic, Reneo and Allen Lynch. Europe from the Balkans to the Urals. Solna: SIPRI, 1996. p. 68 {{ISBN|0-19-829200-7}}</ref> The state's new Monarchy replaced the old parliament, which had been dominated by Serbs.<ref>Payne, Stanley. A History of Fascism, 1914-1945. New York: Routledge, 1996. pp. 143–144 {{ISBN|1-85728-595-6}}</ref>

=== North America ===
{{See also|1929 in the United States}}
In October 1929, the British [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]] overturned a ruling by the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] that women could not be members of the legislature. This case, which came to be known as the [[Persons Case]], had important ramifications not just for the rights of women but because in overturning the case, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council engendered a radical change in the Canadian judicial approach to the Canadian constitution, an approach that has come to be known as the "[[living tree doctrine]]". The five women who initiated the case are known in Canada as the [[The Famous Five (Canada)|Famous Five]].<ref name=Brennan>{{cite book|first=Brian|last=Brennan|title=Alberta Originals: Stories of Albertans Who Made a Difference|year=2001|publisher=Fifth House|page=[https://archive.org/details/albertaoriginals0000bren/page/14 14]|isbn=1-894004-76-0|url=https://archive.org/details/albertaoriginals0000bren/page/14}}</ref> In November, the [[1929 Grand Banks earthquake]] occurred off the south coast of [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] in the Atlantic Ocean. It registered as a [[Richter magnitude]] 7.2 [[submarine earthquake]] centered on [[Grand Banks]], broke 12 submarine [[transatlantic telegraph cable]]s and triggered a [[tsunami]] that destroyed many south coast communities in the [[Burin Peninsula]] area, killing 28 (as of 1997, Canada's most lethal earthquake).<ref name="shunpiking.com"/> [[Ross-Loos Medical Group]] is established in downtown Los Angeles by two physicians, Donald E. Ross and H. Clifford Loos - the first [[HMO]] in the United States.

The Mexican [[Cristero War]] continued in 1929 as clerical forces attempted an assassination of the provisional president in a train bombing in February. The attempt failed. [[Plutarco Calles]], at the center of power for the anti-clerics, continued to gather power in Mexico City. His government was considered an enemy to more conservative Mexicans who held to traditional forms of government and more religious control. Calles founded the National Revolutionary Party early in the year to increase his power; a party which was, ironically, seen by foreigners as fascist and which was in opposition to the Mexican Right. A special election was held in this year, which Jose Vasconselos lost to Ortiz Rubio.  By this time, the war had ended.<ref>Sherman, John. ''The Mexican Right'' New York: Praeger, 1997. {{ISBN|0-275-95736-5}} pp. 18–23</ref> The last group of rebels was defeated on June 4, and in the same month US Ambassador [[Dwight Morrow]] initiated talks between parties. On [[June 21]] an agreement was brokered ending the Cristero War. On [[June 27]], church bells rang and mass was held publicly for the first time in three years. The agreement heavily favored the government, as priests were required to register with the government and religion was banned from schools.<ref>Scheina, Robert. ''Latin America's Wars'' Volume II: the Age of the Professional Soldier, 1900-2001. City: Potomac Books Inc., 2003. {{ISBN|1-57488-452-2}}; pp. 32–33</ref>

The major event of the year for the United States was the [[Wall Street Crash of 1929|stock market crash on Wall Street]], which was to have international effects and be widely regarded as the inciting incident of the [[Great Depression]]. On September 3, the [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]] (DJIA) peaked at 381.17, a height it would not reach again until November 1954. Then, from [[October 24]]–[[October 29]], stock prices suffered three multi-digit percentage drops, wiping out more than $30&nbsp;billion from the New York Stock Exchange (10 times greater than the annual budget of the federal government).<ref>Gilbert, 767–9</ref><!-- This ref only covers part of the preceding info --> On [[December 3]] U.S. President [[Herbert Hoover]] announced to the [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]] that the worst effects of the recent [[stock market]] crash were behind the nation, and that the American people had regained faith in the [[Economics|economy]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=22021|first=Herbert|last=Hoover|title=Annual Message to Congress on the State of the Union|work=The American Presidency Project|access-date=2013-02-26}}</ref>

=== Literature, arts, and entertainment ===
{{Main|1929 in the arts (disambiguation)}}
Literature of the time reflected the memories many harbored of the horrors of World War I. A major seller was ''[[All Quiet on the Western Front]]'' by [[Erich Maria Remarque]]. Remarque was a German who had fought in the war at age eighteen and been wounded in the [[Third Battle of Ypres]]. He stated that he intended the book to tell the story "of a generation of men who, even though they may have escaped its shells, were destroyed by the war." Another 1929 book reflecting on World War I was [[Ernest Hemingway]]'s ''[[A Farewell to Arms]]'', as well as ''[[Good-Bye to All That]]'' by [[Robert Graves]].<ref>Gilbert, pp. 769–70</ref> In lighter media, a few stars of the comic industry made their debut, including ''[[The Adventures of Tintin|Tintin]]'', a [[comic book]] character created by [[Hergé]], who would appear in over 200 million comic books in 60 languages. ''[[Popeye]]'', another [[comic strip]] character created by [[Elzie Crisler Segar]], also appeared in this year.

Within the film industry, on [[May 16]] the [[1st Academy Awards]] were presented at the [[Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel]], with ''[[Wings (1927 film)|Wings]]'' winning [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]]. Also, ''[[Hallelujah! (film)|Hallelujah!]]'' became the first Hollywood film to contain an entirely black cast, and ''[[Atlantic (film)|Atlantic]]'', a film about the ''[[Sinking of the RMS Titanic|Titanic]]'', is an early sound-on-film movie. The arts were in the midst of the [[Modernist]] movement, as [[Pablo Picasso]] painted two [[cubist]] works, ''Woman in a Garden'' and ''Nude in an Armchair'', during this year. The [[surrealist]] painters [[Salvador Dalí]] and [[René Magritte]] completed several works, including ''[[The First Days of Spring]]'' and ''[[The Treachery of Images]]''. On [[November 7]] in New York City, the [[Museum of Modern Art]] opened to the public. The latest in [[modern architecture]] was also represented by the [[Barcelona Pavilion]] in Spain, and the [[Fairmont Royal York|Royal York Hotel]] in Toronto, at its completion the tallest building in the British Empire.

===Science and technology===
{{Main|1929 in science}}
The year saw several advances in technology and exploration. On [[June 27]] the first public demonstration of color TV was held by H. E. Ives and his colleagues at Bell Telephone Laboratories in New York. The first images were a bouquet of roses and an American flag. A mechanical system was used to transmit 50-line color television images between New York and Washington. The [[BBC]] broadcast a television transmission for the first time. By November, [[Vladimir Zworykin]] had taken out the first patent for color television. On [[November 29]], [[Bernt Balchen]], U.S. Admiral [[Richard E. Byrd|Richard Byrd]], Captain Ashley McKinley, and [[Harold June]], became the first to fly over the [[South Pole]]. Within the year, Britain, Australia and New Zealand began a joint [[British Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition|Antarctic Research Expedition]], and the German airship ''[[LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin|Graf Zeppelin]]'' began a round-the-world flight (ended [[August 29]]). This year [[Ernst Schwarz (zoologist)|Ernst Schwarz]] describes [[Bonobo]] (''Pan paniscus'') as a different species from [[common chimpanzee]] (''Pan troglodytes''), both closely related phylogenetically to human beings.