Editing 1840s (section)

== Politics and wars ==
{{See also|List of sovereign states in the 1840s}}

=== Pacific Islands ===
In 1842, [[Tahiti]] and [[Tahuata]] were declared a [[protectorate|French protectorate]], to allow Catholic missionaries to work undisturbed. The capital of [[Papeete|Papeetē]] was founded in 1843. In 1845, [[George Tupou I]] united [[Tonga]] into a kingdom, and reigned as [[Tuʻi Kanokupolu]].

=== East Asia ===

==== China ====
[[File:British ships in Canton.jpg|thumb|[[First Opium War]]: British ships approaching [[Guangzhou|Canton]] in May 1841]]
On August 29, 1842, the [[First Opium War|first of two Opium Wars]] ended between China and Britain with the [[Treaty of Nanking]]. One of the consequences was the [[cession]] of modern-day [[Hong Kong Island]] to the British. Hong Kong would eventually be [[Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong|returned to China]] in 1997.

On July 3, 1844 the United States signed the [[Treaty of Wanghia]] with the Qing Empire.<ref>{{cite web |title=Treaty Of Wangxia (Treaty Of Wang-Hsia 望廈條約), May 18, 1844 |url=https://china.usc.edu/treaty-wangxia-treaty-wang-hsia-%E6%9C%9B%E5%BB%88%E6%A2%9D%E7%B4%84-may-18-1844 |website=USC US-China Institute |publisher=USC Annenberg}}</ref> The treaty established five U.S. [[treaty ports]] in China with [[extraterritoriality]] and was the first unequal treaty that the United States imposed on the dynasty.

==== Japan ====

The 1840s comprised the end of the [[Tenpō]] era (1830–1844), the entirety of the [[Kōka]] era (1844–1848), and the beginning of the [[Kaei]] era (1848–1854). The decade saw the end of the reign of [[Emperor Ninko]] in 1846, who was succeeded by his son, [[Emperor Kōmei]].

=== Southeastern Asia ===

==== Siam and Vietnam ====
The [[Siamese–Vietnamese War (1841–1845)|Siamese-Vietnamese War (1841–1845)]] in [[Post-Angkor period|Cambodia]] erupted between Vietnam (then under the rule of the [[Nguyễn dynasty]]) and Siam (under the [[Chakri dynasty|House of Chakri]]). In the increasingly confrontational rivalry between Vietnam and Siam, the conflict was triggered by Vietnam's absorption of Cambodia and the demotion of the Khmer monarchs. Siam under [[Rama III]] seized the opportunity to intervene as the tide of Khmer discontent rose against Vietnamese rule.<ref name="Schliesinger2017">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8obRDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA106|title=The Chong People: A Pearic-Speaking Group of Southeastern Thailand and Their Kin in the Region|author=Joachim Schliesinger|date=2 January 2017|publisher=Booksmango|isbn=978-1-63323-988-3|pages=106–}}</ref>

Emperors [[Minh Mạng]], [[Thiệu Trị]] and [[Tự Đức]] ruled Vietnam during the 1840s under the Nguyễn dynasty.

==== New Guinea ====
* [[1848]] – British, [[Netherlands|Dutch]], and German governments lay claim to [[New Guinea]].

=== Australia and New Zealand ===
[[File:Reconstruction of the Signing of the Treaty of Waitangi, Marcus King (16044258961).jpg|thumb|Depiction of the signing of the [[Treaty of Waitangi]] in 1840]]
* First signing of the [[Treaty of Waitangi]] on 6 February 1840, at [[Waitangi, Northland|Waitangi]], [[United Tribes of New Zealand]] (modern-day [[Northland Region]], [[New Zealand]]), between Māori rangatira (chiefs and rulers) and representatives of the [[The Crown|British Crown]]. The treaty between is considered the founding point of modern New Zealand. There were substantial differences between the Māori and English versions of the text, with the vast majority of rangatira signing the Māori version.<ref>{{Cite web |title=One treaty, two languages, 9 sheets |url=https://www.waitangi.org.nz/waitangi-blog/the-treatys-journey |access-date=2024-07-22 |website=www.waitangi.org.nz |language=en}}</ref> Perhaps the most prominent was that the Māori version (''Te Tiriti o Waitangi'') gave Queen Victoria '[[kāwanatanga]]', a transliteration of the English word 'governorship', whereas the British version said Māori who signed the Treaty were ceding [[sovereignty]]. Other notable differences included a right of pre-emption clause in the English version, but not in the Māori version. In the Māori version of the Treaty, the use of the words 'kawanatanga' and '[[tino rangatiratanga]]' (meaning 'absolute sovereignty') contributed to later differences of view between the Crown and Māori over how much authority rangatira would retain.<ref>Differences between the texts, URL: <nowiki>https://nzhistory.govt.nz/politics/treaty/read-the-Treaty/differences-between-the-texts</nowiki>, (Manatū Taonga — Ministry for Culture and Heritage), updated 5-Oct-2021</ref> The British subsequently declared they had sovereignty over the islands in May, and later proclaimed the [[Colony of New Zealand]] in 1841, despite Māori retaining ''de facto'' substantive sovereignty.<ref>Belich, J. (2015). ''The new zealand wars and the victorian interpretation of racial conflict''. Auckland University Press, p.21</ref> This would lead to the [[New Zealand Wars]] between Māori and the British.
* [[July 20]], [[1845]] – [[Charles Sturt]] enters the [[Simpson Desert]] in central [[Australia]].
* [[May 25]], [[1846]] – The [[Royal Geographical Society]] awards [[Paweł Edmund Strzelecki]] a [[Founder's Medal]] "for exploration in the south eastern portion of Australia".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rgs.org/CMSPages/GetFile.aspx?nodeguid=5e66a0af-8ada-4b4b-9b00-915cbc97082b&lang=en-GB|title=Gold Medal Recipients|website=Royal Geographical Society|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617192715/https://www.rgs.org/CMSPages/GetFile.aspx?nodeguid=5e66a0af-8ada-4b4b-9b00-915cbc97082b&lang=en-GB|archive-date=17 June 2018}}</ref>
* [[June 15]], [[1846]] – [[Launceston Church Grammar School]] opens for the first time in [[Tasmania]].

=== Southern Asia ===

==== Afghanistan ====
{{further|History of Afghanistan|Barakzai dynasty|First Anglo-Afghan War|The Great Game}}

The [[First Anglo-Afghan War]] had started in 1838, started by the British as a means of defending [[Company rule in India|India]] (under British control at the time) from the Russian Empire's expansion into Central Asia.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}} The British attempted to impose a puppet regime on Afghanistan under [[Shuja Shah]], but the regime was short lived and proved unsustainable without British military support. By 1842, mobs were attacking the British on the streets of [[Kabul]] and the British garrison was forced to abandon the city due to constant civilian attacks. During [[1842 retreat from Kabul|the retreat from Kabul]], the British army of approximately 4,500 troops (of which only 690 were European) and 12,000 [[camp follower]]s was subjected to a series of attacks by Afghan warriors. All of the British soldiers were killed except for one and he and a few surviving Indian soldiers made it to the fort at [[Jalalabad]] shortly after.<ref>[http://www.britishbattles.com/first-afghan-war/kabul-gandamak.htm Gandamak] at britishbattles.com</ref> After the [[Battle of Kabul (1842)]], Britain placed [[Dost Mohammad Khan]] back into power (1842–1863) and withdrew from Afghanistan.

==== India ====
[[File:Joppen1907India1848a.jpg|thumb|Map of India in 1848]]
* [[March 24]], [[1843]] – [[Battle of Hyderabad]]: The [[Bombay Army]] led by [[Charles James Napier|Major General Sir Charles Napier]] defeats the [[Talpur]] [[Emir]]s, securing [[Sindh]] as a [[Presidencies and provinces of British India|Province of British India]].

==== Sikh Empire ====
The [[Sikh Empire]] was founded in 1799, ruled by [[Ranjit Singh]]. When Singh died in 1839, the Sikh Empire began to fall into disorder. There was a succession of short-lived rulers at the central [[Durbar (court)|Durbar]] (court), and increasing tension between the [[Khalsa]] (the Sikh Army) and the Durbar. In May 1841, the [[Dogra dynasty]] (a vassal of the Sikh Empire) invaded western Tibet,<ref>{{cite web
 |url=http://www.learnpunjabi.org/eos/
 |title=ZORĀWAR SIṄGH (1786–1841)
 |last1=Dattar
 |first1=C. L.
 |website=Encyclopaedia of Sikhism
 |publisher=Punjabi University Patiala
 |url-status=dead
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140508213214/http://www.learnpunjabi.org/eos/
 |archive-date=2014-05-08
}}</ref> marking the beginning of the [[Sino-Sikh war]]. This war ended in a stalemate in September 1842, with the [[Treaty of Chushul]].

The [[British East India Company]] began to build up its military strength on the borders of the Punjab. Eventually, the increasing tension goaded the Khalsa to invade British territory, under weak and possibly treacherous leaders. The hard-fought [[First Anglo-Sikh War]] (1845–1846) ended in defeat for the Khalsa. With the [[Treaty of Lahore]],<ref name="Pocket On This Day">{{cite book|title=Penguin Pocket On This Day|publisher=Penguin Reference Library|isbn=978-0-14-102715-9|year=2006}}</ref> the Sikh Empire ceded [[Kashmir]] to the East India Company and surrendered the [[Koh-i-Noor]] diamond to [[Queen Victoria]].

The Sikh empire was finally dissolved at the end of the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War]] in 1849 into separate [[princely states]] and the British [[Punjab (British India)|province of Punjab]]. Eventually, a Lieutenant Governorship was formed in Lahore as a direct representative of the [[British Crown]].

==== Sri Lanka ====
[[File:Matale1848-0746.JPG|thumb|A memorial of [[Matale Rebellion]], which began in [[Sri Lanka]] in 1848]]
* [[July 26]], [[1848]] – [[Matale Rebellion]] against [[British Empire|British rule]] in [[Sri Lanka]].

=== Western Asia ===

==== Ottoman Empire ====
The decade was near the beginning of the [[Tanzimât|Tanzimât Era]] of the Ottoman Empire. Sultan [[Abdülmecid I]] ruled during this period.

===== Lebanon =====
{{Further|1840 Lebanon conflict}}
Emir [[Bashir Shihab II]] controlled the [[Mount Lebanon Emirate]] at the beginning of the 1840s. Bashir allied with [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt]], but Muhammad Ali was driven out of the country. Bashir was deposed in 1840 when the Egyptians were driven out by an Ottoman-European alliance, which had the backing of [[Maronite]] forces. His successor, Emir [[Bashir III]], ruled until 1842, after which the emirate was dissolved and split into a [[Druze in Lebanon|Druze sector]] and a [[Christianity in Lebanon|Christian sector]].

===== Romania =====
* [[June 21]], [[1848]] – [[Wallachian Revolution of 1848]]: The [[Proclamation of Islaz]] is made public and a [[Romanians|Romanian]] revolutionary government led by [[Ion Heliade Rădulescu]] and [[Christian Tell]] is created.

==== Persian Empire (Iran) ====
* [[1844]]–[[1852]] – The [[Bábism|Babi Movement]]
* [[1848]] – [[Amir Kabir|Mirza Taqi Khan Amir Kabir]] as chief minister (until 1851)
* [[1847]] – The [[Ottoman Empire]] cedes [[Abadan Island]] to the [[Qajar dynasty|Persian Empire]]

=== Revolutions of 1848 ===
[[File:Europe 1848 map en.png|thumb|240px|Map of Europe in 1848–1849 depicting the main revolutionary centers]]
There was a wave of [[revolution]]s in Europe, collectively known as the [[Revolutions of 1848]]. It remains the most widespread [[revolutionary wave]] in [[European history]], but within a year, [[reactionary]] forces had regained control, and the revolutions collapsed.

The revolutions were essentially [[Liberal democracy#Dictatorship of the bourgeoisie|bourgeois-democratic]] in nature with the aim of removing the old [[Feudalism|feudal]] structures and the creation of independent national states. The revolutionary wave began in [[French Revolution of 1848|France in February]], and immediately spread to most of Europe and parts of Latin America. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no coordination or cooperation among the revolutionaries in different countries. Six factors were involved: widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership; demands for more participation in government and democracy; demands for freedom of press; the demands of the working classes; the upsurge of nationalism; and finally, the regrouping of the reactionary forces based on the royalty, the aristocracy, the army, and the peasants.<ref>R.J.W. Evans and Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, eds., ''The Revolutions in Europe 1848–1849'' (2000) pp v, 4</ref>

The uprisings were led by ad hoc coalitions of reformers, the middle classes and workers, which did not hold together for long. Tens of thousands of people were killed, and many more forced into exile. The only significant lasting reforms were the abolition of [[serfdom]] in Austria and Hungary, the end of [[absolute monarchy]] in Denmark, and the definitive end of the [[Capetian dynasty|Capetian monarchy]] in France. The revolutions were most important in France, the Netherlands, Germany, Poland, Italy, and the Austrian Empire, but did not reach Russia, Sweden, Great Britain, and most of southern Europe <!-- stet. Do not change to the ambiguous 'Britain' or the wrong 'United Kingdom [of Great Britain and Ireland] because there was an 'upheaval' in Ireland --> (Spain, Serbia,<ref>Serbia's Role in the Conflict in Vojvodina 1848–49, Ohio State University, http://www.ohio.edu/chastain/rz/serbvio.htm</ref> Greece, Montenegro, Portugal, the Ottoman Empire).<ref>Nor did it reach Spain, Belgium, Sweden, Portugal, or the Ottoman Empire. Evans and Strandmann (2000) p 2</ref>

=== Eastern Europe ===

==== Russia ====
* [[May 22]], [[1841]] – The Georgian province of [[Guria]] [[1841 rebellion in Guria|revolts]] against the [[Russian Empire]].
* [[1848]] – [[Admiral]] [[Gennadi Nevelskoi|Nevelskoi]] explores the [[Strait of Tartary]].
* [[November 16]], [[1849]] – A [[Russia]]n court sentences [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]] to death for anti-government activities linked to a radical intellectual group, the [[Petrashevsky Circle]]. Facing a firing squad on [[December 23]] the group members are reprieved at the last moment and exiled to the [[katorga]] prison camps in [[Siberia]].

==== Austrian Empire ====
* [[June 2]] – [[June 12|12]], [[1848]] – [[Prague Slavic Congress, 1848|Prague Slavic Congress]] brings together members of the [[Pan-Slavism]] movement.

===== Hungary =====
[[File:Komáromi csata II Than 2.jpg|thumb|Hungarian [[hussar]]s in battle during the Hungarian Revolution]]
* [[March 15]], [[1848]] – Start of the [[Hungarian Revolution of 1848]].
* [[May 15]], [[1848]] – 40,000 [[Romanian people|Romanians]] meet at the [[Blaj]] to protest [[Transylvania]] becoming a part of [[Hungary]].<ref name=Stoica1>{{cite book|last=Stoica|first=Vasile|title=The Roumanian Question: The Roumanians and their Lands|year=1919|publisher=Pittsburgh Printing Company|location=Pittsburgh|page=23|url=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/7314/view/1/23/}}</ref>
* [[October 6]], [[1849]] – The [[13 Martyrs of Arad]] are executed after the Hungarian War of Independence.

===== Galicia =====
* [[February 18]], [[1846]] – Beginning of the [[Galician slaughter|Galician peasant revolt]].

=== Northern Europe ===

==== Sweden ====
* [[1842]] – Compulsory [[education in Sweden|elementary education]] introduced.
* [[March 8]], [[1844]] – [[Monarch|King]] [[Oscar I of Sweden|Oscar I]] ascends to the throne of [[Sweden-Norway]] upon the death of his father [[Charles XIV John of Sweden|Charles XVI/III John]].

==== Denmark ====
{{Main|History of Denmark|History of Iceland|Danish colonial empire}}
* [[1843]] – The [[Denmark|Danish]] government re-establishes the [[Althing]] in [[Iceland]] as an advisory body.
* [[March 24]], [[1848]] – Start of the [[First Schleswig War]] ({{langx|de|Schleswig-Holsteinischer Krieg}} or Three Years' War ({{langx|da|Treårskrigen}})). The [[First Schleswig War]] was the first round of military conflict in southern [[Denmark]] and northern Germany rooted in the [[Schleswig-Holstein Question]], contesting the issue of who should control the Duchies of [[Schleswig]] and [[Holstein]]. The war, which lasted from 1848 to 1851, also involved troops from [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]] and [[Sweden]]. Ultimately, the war resulted in a Danish victory. A second conflict, the [[Second Schleswig War]], erupted in 1864.
* [[June 5]], [[1849]] – [[Denmark]] becomes a [[constitutional monarchy]].

==== United Kingdom ====
* [[September 16]], [[1840]] – [[Joseph Strutt (philanthropist)|Joseph Strutt]] hands over the deeds and papers concerning the [[Derby Arboretum]], which is to become [[England]]'s first public park.
* [[August 10]], [[1842]] – The [[Mines and Collieries Act 1842|Mines Act 1842]] becomes law, prohibiting underground work for all women and boys under 10 years old in [[England]].
* [[March 25]], [[1843]] – [[Marc Isambard Brunel]]'s [[Thames Tunnel]], the first tunnel under the [[River Thames]] and the world's first bored underwater tunnel, is opened in London.<ref name="Pocket On This Day"/>
* [[May 4]], [[1843]] – [[Colony of Natal|Natal]] is proclaimed a British colony.
* April – The [[Fleet Prison]] for [[debtors' prison|debtors]] in London is closed.
[[File:Chartist meeting, Kennington Common.jpg|thumb|[[April 10]]: "Monster Rally" of [[Chartism|Chartists]] held on [[Kennington Common]] in London; the first photograph of a crowd depicts it.]]
* [[July]], [[1848]] – [[Public Health Act 1848|Public Health Act]] establishes [[Local board of health|Boards of Health]] across [[England and Wales]], the nation's first public health law, giving cities broad authority to build modern sanitary systems.<ref name=CBH_269>{{cite book|last1=Palmer|first1=Alan|last2=Palmer|first2=Veronica|year=1992|title=The Chronology of British History|publisher=Century Ltd|location=London|pages=269–270|isbn=978-0-7126-5616-0}}</ref>

===== Royalty =====
[[Queen Victoria]] was on the throne 20 June 1837 until her death 22 January, 1901. The [[wedding of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]] took place in 1840.

===== Ireland =====
The [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine]] of the 1840s caused the deaths of one million Irish people and over a million more emigrated to escape it.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Irish Potato Famine |publisher=Digital History |date=7 November 2008 |url=http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/irish_potato_famine.cfm |access-date=2008-11-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120823030816/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/irish_potato_famine.cfm |archive-date=23 August 2012 }}</ref> It is sometimes referred to, mostly outside Ireland, as the "Irish Potato Famine" because one-third of the population was then solely reliant on this cheap crop for a number of historical reasons.<ref>{{citation|title=The Great Hunger|first=Cecil|last=Woodham-Smith|year=1991|page = 19}}</ref><ref>{{citation|title=This Great Calamity|last=Kinealy|first=Christine |year=1994|publisher=Gill & Macmillan|isbn=978-0-7171-4011-4|pages = xvi–ii, 2–3}}</ref><ref>{{citation|title=The Irish Potato Famine|last=O'Neill|first=Joseph R.|year=2009|publisher=ABDO| isbn=978-1-60453-514-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TVEWfeClF8MC|page = 1}}</ref> The [[Proximate cause#Historiographical usage|proximate cause]] of [[famine]] was a potato disease commonly known as [[potato blight]].<ref>{{citation|title=Ireland's Great Famine: Interdisciplinary Perspectives|first=Cormac|last=Ó Gráda|year=2006|publisher=Dublin Press|isbn=978-1-904558-57-6|page = 7}}</ref> A census taken in 1841 revealed a population of slightly over 8 million.<ref>{{citation|publisher=Gill and Macmillan Ltd|first=Richard|last=Killen|year=2003|title=A Short History of Modern Ireland}}</ref> A census immediately after the famine in 1851 counted 6,552,385, a drop of almost 1.5 million in 10 years.<ref>{{citation|last1=Vaughan|first1=W.E|last2=Fitzpatrick|first2= A.J|editor1=W. E. Vaughan|editor2=A. J. Fitzpatrick|title=Irish Historical Statistics, Population, 1821/1971|publisher=[[Royal Irish Academy]]|year=1978}}</ref>

The period of the potato blight in Ireland from 1845 to 1851 was full of political confrontation.<ref>{{citation|last=Donnelly| first=James S. Jr. |title=Mass Eviction and the Irish Famine: The Clearances Revisited", from The Great Irish Famine|editor-first=Cathal|editor-last=Poirteir|publisher=Mercier Press|location=Dublin, Ireland|year=1995}}</ref> A more radical [[Young Ireland]] group seceded from the Repeal movement and attempted an armed rebellion in the [[Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848]], which was unsuccessful.

=== Western Europe ===

==== Germany ====
* [[May 18]], [[1848]] – The first German National Assembly ([[Frankfurt Parliament|Nationalversammlung]]) opens in [[Frankfurt]], Germany.
* March – The [[Frankfurt Parliament]] completes its drafting of a liberal constitution and elects [[Frederick William IV]] emperor of the new German national state.
* [[April 2]], [[1849]] – [[Revolutions of 1848 in the German states]] end in failure.
* [[May 3]], [[1849]] – The [[May Uprising in Dresden]], last of the [[Revolutions of 1848 in the German states]], begins.

==== Switzerland ====
* [[November 3]] – [[November 29|29]], [[1847]] – [[Sonderbund War]], a civil war in Switzerland in which General [[Guillaume-Henri Dufour]]'s federal army defeats the ''Sonderbund'' (an alliance of seven [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[Cantons of Switzerland|cantons]]) with a total of only 86 deaths.
[[File:Gedenkblatt 1874.jpg|thumb|[[September 12]]: The [[Swiss Confederation]] reconstitutes itself as a [[federal republic]].]]
* [[September 12]], [[1848]] – One of the successes of the [[Revolutions of 1848]], the [[Swiss Federal Constitution]], patterned on the [[US Constitution]], enters into force, creating a [[federal republic]] and one of the first modern [[Democracy|democratic]] states in Europe.

==== The Netherlands ====
* [[October 7]], [[1840]] – [[William II of the Netherlands|Willem II]] becomes King of the [[Netherlands]].
* [[November 3]], [[1848]] – A greatly revised [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[constitution]] is proclaimed.

==== France ====
* [[March 1]], [[1840]] – [[Adolphe Thiers]] becomes prime minister of [[France]].
* [[September 30]], [[1840]] – The frigate [[French ship Belle Poule (1834)|''Belle-Poule'']] arrives in Cherbourg, bringing back the remains of [[Napoleon]] from [[Saint Helena]] to [[France]]. He is buried in the [[Invalides]].
[[File:Repatriación de las cenizas de Napoleón a bordo de la Belle Poule, por Eugène Isabey.jpg|thumb|right|The frigate Belle-Poule brings back the remains of Napoleon to France.]]
* [[December 15]], [[1840]] – The corpse of [[Napoleon]] is placed in the [[Hotel des Invalides]] in [[Paris]].
* [[February 23]], [[1848]] – [[François Guizot]], [[Prime Minister of France]], resigns. 52 people from the Paris mob are killed by soldiers guarding public buildings.
* [[February 24]], [[1848]] – [[Louis Philippe]], King of the French, abdicates in favour of his grandson, [[Philippe, comte de Paris]], and flees to England after days of revolution in Paris. The [[French Second Republic]] is later proclaimed by [[Alphonse de Lamartine]] in the name of the provisional government elected by the Chamber under the pressure of the mob.
* [[May 15]], [[1848]] – [[Radicalism (historical)|Radicals]] invade the French [[Chamber of Deputies (France)|Chamber of Deputies]].
* [[June 22]], [[1848]] – The French government dissolves the national workshops in Paris, giving the workers the choice of joining the army or going to workshops in the provinces.
* [[August 28]], [[1848]] – Mathieu Luis becomes the first black member to join the French [[Parliament]] as a representative of [[Guadeloupe]].
* [[November 4]], [[1848]] – France ratifies a new constitution. The Second Republic of France is set up, ending the state of temporary government lasting since the Revolution of 1848.
* [[December 10]], [[1848]] – [[Prince]] [[Napoleon III|Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte]] is elected first [[president (government title)|president]] of the [[French Second Republic]].
* [[December 20]], [[1848]] – [[President (government title)|President]] [[Napoleon III|Bonaparte]] takes his [[Oath of Office]] in front of the [[French National Assembly]].
* [[January 1]], [[1849]] – [[France]] issues [[Ceres series (France)|Ceres]], the nation's first [[postage stamp]].

=== Southern Europe ===

==== Greece ====
* [[September 3]], [[1843]] – Popular uprising in [[Athens]], [[Greece]], including citizens and military captains, to require from [[Otto, King of Greece|King Otto]] the issue of a liberal [[Constitution]] to the state, which has been governed since independence ([[1830]]) by various domestic and foreign business interests.

==== Italian Peninsula ====
* [[January 12]], [[1848]] – The [[Sicilian revolution of independence of 1848|Palermo rising]] erupts in [[Sicily]], against the [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]] kingdom of the [[Two Sicilies]].
* [[March 22]], [[1848]] – [[Republic of San Marco]] comes into existence in [[Venice]].
* [[January 21]], [[1849]] – General elections are held in the [[Papal States]].
* [[February 8]], [[1849]] – The new [[Roman Republic (19th century)|Roman Republic]] is proclaimed.
* [[April 27]], [[1849]] – [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] enters [[Rome]] to defend it from the French troops of General [[Oudinot]].
* [[May 15]], [[1849]] – Troops of the [[Two Sicilies]] take [[Palermo]] and crush the republican government of [[Sicily]].
* [[July 3]], [[1849]] – French troops occupy [[Rome]]; the [[Roman Republic (19th century)|Roman Republic]] surrenders.

==== Spain ====
{{Main|Carlist Wars}}This period saw the 1840 end of the [[First Carlist War]], a [[civil war]] in [[Spain]] over the succession to the throne and the nature of the [[Monarchy of Spain|Spanish monarchy]]. This was the first full decade of the [[reign of Isabella II of Spain]]. Since she was only 10 years old in 1840, her true reign started in 1843, for which the first portion was referred to as [[Década moderada]]. The [[Affair of the Spanish Marriages]] (1846) was a series of intrigues between [[July Monarchy|France]], [[Mid-nineteenth century Spain|Spain]], and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] relating Isabella II's marriages, which was shortly followed by [[Second Carlist War]] (1847–1849).

==== Portugal ====
* [[May 16]], [[1846]] – [[Revolution]]ary insurrection in Portugal (crushed by royalist troops on [[February 22]], [[1847]])

=== Africa ===
* [[December 7]], [[1840]] – [[David Livingstone]] leaves Britain for Africa.
* [[August 10]], [[1845]] – The French Consul in [[Zanzibar]] (M. Broquant) receives the final letter sent by [[Eugène Maizan]] during his expedition into tropical Africa.<ref name="Giraud">{{cite book|language=fr|first=Victor|last=Giraud|title=Les lacs de l'Afrique Équatoriale : voyage d'exploration exécuté de 1883 à 1885|location=[[Paris]]|publisher=[[Hachette (publisher)|Librairie Hachette et Cie]]|year=1890|url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1048705/f36.image|page=31}}</ref>
* [[December 20]], [[1848]] – [[Slavery]] is abolished on the island of [[Réunion]].

==== Algeria ====
* [[December 21]], [[1847]] – [[Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri|Abd al-Kader]] surrenders and is imprisoned by the French.

==== Ethiopia ====
* [[February 7]], [[1842]] – [[Battle of Debre Tabor]]: Ras [[Ali II of Yejju|Ali Alula]], Regent of the [[Emperor of Ethiopia]], defeats warlord Wube Haile Maryam of [[Semien province|Semien]].

==== South Africa ====
* [[June 4]], [[1842]] – In [[South Africa]], hunter [[Richard Philip King|Dick King]] rides into a British military base in [[Grahamstown]] to warn that the [[Boer]]s have besieged [[Durban]] (he had left 11 days earlier). The British army dispatches a relief force.
* [[December 13]], [[1843]] – [[Basutoland]] becomes a British protectorate.<ref name=CBH_266>{{cite book|last1=Palmer|first1=Alan|last2=Palmer|first2=Veronica|year=1992|title=The Chronology of British History|publisher=Century Ltd|location=London|pages=266–267|isbn=978-0-7126-5616-0}}</ref>

==== Morocco ====
[[File:Vernet - Bataille d'Isly - 1846.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Battle of Isly]] during the [[Franco-Moroccan War]]]]
* [[August 14]], [[1844]] – [[Abdelkader El Djezairi]] is defeated at Isly in [[Morocco]]; the [[sultan]] of [[Morocco]] soon repudiates his ally.

==== Liberia ====
* [[July 26]], [[1847]] – [[Liberia]] gains independence.
* [[January 3]], [[1848]] – [[Joseph Jenkins Roberts]] is sworn in as the first [[President of Liberia|president]] of the independent African [[Republic of Liberia]].

=== North America ===

==== Canada ====

In the prior decade, the desire for [[responsible government]] resulted in the abortive [[Rebellions of 1837–1838]]. The [[Report on the Affairs of British North America|Durham Report]] subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture.<ref name=Buckner>{{cite book|title=Canada and the British Empire|editor= Buckner, Philip|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2008|pages=37–40, 56–59, 114, 124–125|isbn=978-0-19-927164-1}}</ref> The [[Act of Union 1840]] merged the Canadas into a united [[Province of Canada]] and responsible government was established for all British North American provinces by 1849.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Romney|first=Paul|date=Spring 1989|title=From Constitutionalism to Legalism: Trial by Jury, Responsible Government, and the Rule of Law in the Canadian Political Culture|journal=Law and History Review|volume=7|issue=1|page=128|doi=10.2307/743779|jstor=743779|s2cid=147047853 }}</ref> The signing of the [[Oregon Treaty]] by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the [[Oregon boundary dispute]], extending the border westward along the [[49th parallel north|49th parallel]]. This paved the way for British colonies on [[Colony of Vancouver Island|Vancouver Island (1849)]] and in [[Colony of British Columbia (1858–1866)|British Columbia (1858)]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Evenden|first=Leonard J|author2=Turbeville, Daniel E|title=Geographical snapshots of North America|editor=Janelle, Donald G|publisher=Guilford Press|year=1992|page=[https://archive.org/details/geographicalsnap0000unse/page/52 52]|chapter=The Pacific Coast Borderland and Frontier|isbn=978-0-89862-030-6|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/geographicalsnap0000unse/page/52}}</ref>
* [[March 11]], [[1848]] – [[Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine]] and [[Robert Baldwin]] became the first [[Joint Premiers of the Province of Canada]] to be democratically elected under a system of [[responsible government]].
* [[April 25]], [[1849]] – [[James Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin]], the [[Governor General of Canada]], signs the [[Rebellion Losses Bill]], outraging [[Montreal]]'s [[English-Canadian|English]] population and triggering the [[Montreal Riots]].

==== United States ====
* [[January 18]], [[1840]] – ''The Electro-Magnetic and Mechanics Intelligencer'' used electricity for power of the [[Printing press|press to print]] it.
* [[February 18]], [[1841]] – The first ongoing [[filibuster]] in the [[United States Senate]] begins and lasts until [[March 11]].
* [[August 16]], [[1841]] – U.S. President [[John Tyler]] vetoes a [[Bill (law)|bill]] which called for the re-establishment of the [[Second Bank of the United States]]. Enraged [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]] members riot outside the [[White House]] in the most violent demonstration on White House grounds in U.S. history.
* March – [[Commonwealth v. Hunt]]: the Massachusetts Supreme Court makes strikes and unions legal in the United States.
* [[May 19]], [[1842]] – [[Dorr Rebellion]]: Militiamen supporting [[Thomas Wilson Dorr]] attack the arsenal in [[Providence, Rhode Island]], but are repulsed.
* [[January 23]], [[1845]] – The [[United States Congress]] establishes a uniform date for federal elections, which will henceforth be held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November.
* [[March 4]], [[1845]] – The [[United States Congress]] passes legislation overriding a presidential [[veto]] for the first time.
* [[February 26]], [[1846]] – The [[Liberty Bell]] is cracked while being rung for George Washington's birthday.
* [[March 1]], [[1847]] – The state of [[Michigan]] formally abolishes the [[death penalty]].
* [[March 4]], [[1847]] – The [[30th United States Congress]] is sworn into office.
[[File:First US Stamps 1847 Issue.jpg|thumb|300px|<div style="text-align: center;">The first U.S. postage stamps have portraits of [[Benjamin Franklin]] and [[George Washington]]. Though highly collectable, they are far from being the most valuable.</div>]]
* [[July 1]], [[1847]] – The United States issues its first [[postage stamp]]s ''(pictured)''.
* [[January 31]], [[1848]] – Construction of the [[Washington Monument]] begins in [[Washington, D.C.]]
* [[March 3]], [[1849]] – The [[United States Congress]] passes the [[Gold Coinage Act]] allowing the minting of [[gold]] [[coin]]s.

===== Slavery =====
* [[March 9]], [[1841]] – ''[[United States v. The Amistad|Amistad]]'': The [[Supreme Court of the United States]] rules in the case that the Africans who seized control of the ship had been taken into [[slavery]] illegally.
* [[August 11]] (Wednesday) Frederick Douglass spoke in front of the [[Anti-Slavery Convention]] in [[Nantucket, Massachusetts]].
* May – [[Frederick Douglass]]'s ''[[Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave]]'' written by himself is published by the [[Boston]] Anti-Slavery Society.

===== Settlement =====
[[File:USA Territorial Growth 1850.jpg|thumb|300px|United States territorial growth from 1840 to 1850]]
* [[May 11]], [[1841]] – [[Charles Wilkes|Lt. Charles Wilkes]] lands at [[Fort Nisqually]] in [[Puget Sound]].
* [[August 4]], [[1842]] – The [[Armed Occupation Act]] is signed, providing for the armed occupation and settlement of the unsettled part of the Peninsula of [[East Florida]].
* [[August 9]], [[1842]] – The [[Webster–Ashburton Treaty]] is signed, settling the dispute over the location of the [[Maine]]–[[New Brunswick]] [[Canada–United States border|border between the United States and Canada]], and establishing the United States–Canada border east of the [[Rocky Mountains]].
* [[May 22]], [[1843]] – The first major [[wagon train]] headed for the American Northwest sets out with one thousand pioneers from [[Elm Grove, Missouri]], on the [[Oregon Trail]].
* [[March 3]], [[1845]] – [[Florida]] is admitted as the 27th [[U.S. state]].
* [[December 2]], [[1845]] – [[Manifest destiny]]: U.S. President [[James K. Polk]] announces to Congress that the [[Monroe Doctrine]] should be strictly enforced and that the United States should aggressively expand into the West.
* [[December 29]], [[1845]] – [[Texas]] is admitted as the 28th [[U.S. state]].
* [[June 15]], [[1846]] – The [[Oregon Treaty]] establishes the [[49th parallel north|49th parallel]] as the border between the United States and Canada, from the [[Rocky Mountains]] to the [[Strait of Juan de Fuca]].
* [[1846]] – The portion of the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]] that was ceded by [[Virginia]] in [[1790]] is re-ceded to [[Virginia]].
* [[December 28]], [[1846]] – [[Iowa]] is admitted as the 29th [[U.S. state]].
* [[July 24]], [[1847]] – After 17 months of travel, [[Brigham Young]] leads 148 [[Mormon pioneers]] into [[Salt Lake Valley]], resulting in the establishment of [[Salt Lake City]].[[File:Flag of Wisconsin.svg|thumb|[[May 29]]: [[Wisconsin]] admitted as the 30th [[U.S. state]].]]
* [[May 29]], [[1848]] – [[Wisconsin]] is admitted as the 30th [[U.S. state]].
* [[1848]] – The [[Illinois and Michigan Canal]] is completed.
* [[March 3]], [[1849]] – [[Minnesota]] becomes a [[Territories of the United States|United States territory]]

===== Native Americans =====
Chief Joseph of the Nez Perce was predicted to have been born in the 1840s.

===== Presidents =====
The United States had five different Presidents during the decade. Only the [[1880s]] would have as many. [[Martin Van Buren]] was president when the decade began, but was defeated by [[William Henry Harrison]] in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1840|U.S. presidential election of 1840]]. Harrison's service was the shortest in history, starting with [[Inauguration of William Henry Harrison|his inauguration]] on March 4, 1841, and ending when he died on April 4, 1841.

Harrison's vice president, [[John Tyler]], replaced him as President (the first such Presidential succession in U.S. history), and served out the rest of his term. Tyler spent much of his term in conflict with the Whig party. He ended his term having made an alliance with the Democrats, endorsing [[James K. Polk]] and signing the resolution to annex Texas into the United States.

In the [[1844 United States presidential election|Presidential election of 1844]], [[James K. Polk]] defeated [[Henry Clay]]. During his presidency, Polk oversaw the U.S. victory in the Mexican–American War and subsequent annexation of what is now the southwest United States. He also negotiated a split of the Oregon Territory with Great Britain.
[[File:ElectoralCollege1848-Large.png|thumb|180px|[[November 7]]: [[U.S. presidential election, 1848|The first US presidential election held in every state on the same day]] sees [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] [[Zachary Taylor]] of [[Virginia]] defeat [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] [[Lewis Cass]] of [[Michigan]].]]
In the [[1848 United States presidential election|U.S. presidential election of 1848]], [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] [[Zachary Taylor]] of [[Louisiana]] defeated [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] [[Lewis Cass]] of [[Michigan]]. Taylor's term in office was cut short by his death in 1850.

===== California =====
{{Main|Alta California|Mexican Cession|California Gold Rush}}
In the first part of the 1840s, the modern state of [[California]] was part of a larger province of [[Mexico]], called "[[Alta California]]". The region included all of the modern American states of [[California]], [[Nevada]] and [[Utah]], and parts of [[Arizona]], [[Wyoming]], [[Colorado]] and [[New Mexico]].

The [[United States]], embarked on the [[Conquest of California]] in an early military campaign of the [[Mexican–American War]] in Alta California. The California Campaign was marked by a series of small battles throughout 1846 and early 1847. The [[Treaty of Cahuenga]] was signed on January 13, 1847, and essentially terminated hostilities in Alta California. Shortly thereafter, [[John C. Frémont]] was appointed Governor of the new [[California]] Territory, and [[Yerba Buena, California]], was renamed [[San Francisco]].

The [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]], signed in February 1848, marked the end of the Mexican–American War. By the terms of the treaty, [[Mexican Cession|Mexico formally ceded]] Alta California along with its other northern territories east through [[Texas]], receiving [[USD|$]]15,000,000 in exchange. This largely unsettled territory constituted nearly half of its claimed territory with about 1% of its then population of about 4,500,000.<ref>Note: A new international boundary was drawn; [[San Diego Bay]] is one of the only two main natural harbors in California south of [[San Francisco Bay]]; the border was aligned from one Spanish league south of San Diego Bay east to the [[Gila River]] – [[Colorado River]] confluence, to include strategic San Diego and its harbor.</ref><ref>Two years after the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, U.S. statehood was granted in 1850.</ref>

The discovery of gold in [[Northern California]] (and subsequent discourse about that discovery in 1848) led to the [[California Gold Rush]]. In October 1848, the [[SS California (1848)|SS ''California'']] left [[New York Harbor]], rounded [[Cape Horn]] at the tip of South America, and arrived in [[San Francisco]] after the 4-month-21-day journey. Thereafter, regular [[steamboat]] service continued from the west to the east coast of the United States. During 1848, only an estimated 6,000 to 6,500 people traveled to California to seek gold that year.<ref name="Starr48">Starr, Kevin and Orsi, Richard J. (eds.) (2000), pp. 50–54.</ref> By the beginning of 1849, word of the Gold Rush had spread around the world, and an overwhelming number of gold-seekers and merchants began to arrive from virtually every continent. In 1849, an estimated 90,000 people arrived in [[California]] in 1849—of which 50,000 to 60,000 were from the United States.<ref name="Starr49note">Starr, Kevin and Orsi, Richard J. (eds.) (2000), pp. 57–61. Other estimates range from 70,000 to 90,000 arrivals during 1849 (''ibid.'' p. 57).</ref><ref name="Starr492">Starr, Kevin and Orsi, Richard J. (eds.) (2000), pp. 57–61.</ref> In 1850, [[California]] joined the union as the [[Order of U.S. statehood|31st state]].

==== Texas ====
{{main|Texas Annexation|History of Texas (1845–1860)}}

The [[Republic of Texas]] had [[Texas Declaration of Independence|declared independence]] in 1836, as part of breaking away from Mexico in the [[Texas Revolution]]. The following year, an ambassador from Texas approached the United States about the possibility of becoming an American state. Fearing a war with Mexico, which did not recognize Texas independence, the United States declined the offer.<ref>Richard Bruce Winders, [https://books.google.com/books?id=mcc9EciebFYC ''Crisis in the Southwest: The United States, Mexico, and the Struggle over Texas''] (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002), p. 41.</ref>

In 1844, [[James K. Polk]] was elected the United States president after promising to annex Texas. Before he assumed office, the outgoing president, [[John Tyler]], entered negotiations with Texas. On February 26, 1845, six days before Polk took office, the U.S. Congress approved the annexation. The Texas legislature approved annexation in July 1845 and constructed a [[Constitution of the State of Texas|state constitution]]. In October, Texas residents approved the annexation and the new constitution, and Texas was officially inducted into the United States on December 29, 1845, as the 28th U.S. state.<ref>Fehrenbach, ''Lone Star'', pp. 264–267</ref> Mexico still considered Texas to be a renegade Mexican state, and never considered land south of the [[Nueces River]] to be part of Texas. This border dispute between the newly expanded United States and Mexico triggered the [[#Mexican–American War|Mexican–American War]].

When the war concluded, Mexico relinquished its claim on Texas, as well as other regions in what is now the southwestern United States. Texas' annexation as a state that tolerated slavery had caused tension in the United States among slave states and those that did not allow slavery. The tension was partially defused with the [[Compromise of 1850]], in which Texas ceded some of its territory to the federal government to become non-slave-owning areas but gained El Paso.

==== Mexican–American War ====
{{Main|Mexican–American War}}[[File:Battle Molino del Rey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Mexican–American War]]]] [[Territorial expansion of the United States|American territorial expansion]] to the [[Pacific coast of the United States|Pacific coast]] was a major goal of U.S. President [[James K. Polk]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vfhAAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA658|title=The United States and Mexico, vol. 2|last=Rives|year=1913|pages=658}}</ref> In 1845, the United States of America [[Texas Annexation|annexed Texas]], which had won independence from [[Centralist Republic of Mexico]] in the [[Texas Revolution]] of 1836. Mexico did not accept the annexation, while also continuing to claim the [[Nueces River]] as its border with Texas<s>,</s> and also still considering Texas to be a province of Mexico. In 1845, newly elected U.S. President [[James K. Polk]] sent troops to the disputed area, and a diplomatic mission to Mexico. After Mexican forces [[Thornton Affair|attacked American forces]], the U.S. declared the [[Mexican–American War]] (1846–1848).

Combat operations lasted a year and a half, from the spring of 1846 to the fall of 1847. U.S. forces quickly occupied the capital town of [[Santa Fe de Nuevo México]] along the upper Rio Grande and began the [[Conquest of California]] in Mexico's [[Alta California]] Department. They then invaded to the south into parts of central Mexico (modern-day northeastern Mexico and northwest Mexico). Meanwhile, the [[Pacific Squadron]] of the [[United States Navy]] conducted a blockade and took control of several garrisons on the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] coast farther south in lower [[Baja California Territory]]. The U.S. Army eventually captured the capital [[Mexico City]], having marched west from the port of [[Veracruz (city)|Veracruz]], where the Americans staged their first amphibious landing on the [[Gulf of Mexico]] coast.

The 1848 [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]], forced onto the remnant Mexican government, ended the war and specified its major consequence, the [[Mexican Cession]] of the northern territories of Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo México to the United States. The U.S. agreed to pay $15 million compensation for the physical damage of the war. In addition, the United States assumed $3.25 million of debt already owed earlier by the Mexican government to U.S. citizens. Mexico acknowledged the loss of their province, later the Republic of Texas (and now the [[Texas|State of Texas]]), and thereafter cited and acknowledged the Rio Grande as its future northern national border with the United States. Including Texas, Mexico ceded an area of approximately {{convert|2500000|km2}} – by its terms, around 55% of its former national territory.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=26|title=Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)}}</ref>

==== Mexico ====
{{See also|Territorial evolution of Mexico|Centralist Republic of Mexico|Antonio López de Santa Anna}}
The 1840s for Mexico were the end of the [[Centralist Republic of Mexico|centralist government]] and the waning years the "Age of Santa Anna". In 1834, President [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]] dissolved Congress, forming a new government. That government instituted the new Centralist Republic of Mexico by approving a new centralist constitution ("[[Siete Leyes]]"), From its formation in 1835 until its dissolution in 1846, the Centralist Republic was governed by eleven [[President of Mexico|presidents]] (none of which finished their term). It called for the state militias to disarm, but many states resisted, including [[Mexican Texas]], which won its independence in the [[Texas Revolution]] of 1836.

The [[Republic of the Rio Grande]] declared its independence from Mexico in January 1840. However, the border with Texas was never determined (whether the [[Nueces River]] or the [[Rio Grande]]). The new Republic fought a brief and unsuccessful war for independence, returning to Mexico late in the year.

In 1841, Generals [[Antonio López de Santa Anna|Santa Anna]] and [[Mariano Paredes (President of Mexico)|Paredes]] led a rebellion against [[Anastasio Bustamante|President Bustamante]], resulting in Santa Anna becoming president of the [[Centralist Republic of Mexico|centralist government]] for a fifth time . Local officials in Yucatán declared independence in 1841, opposing strong autocratic rule and demanding the restoration of the [[1824 Constitution of Mexico|Constitution of 1824]], thus establishing the second [[Republic of Yucatán]].

In 1842, the region of [[Soconusco]] was annexed by Mexico as part of the state of [[Chiapas]], following the dissolution of the [[Federal Republic of Central America]].

In 1846, [[Mariano Paredes (President of Mexico)|President Paredes]] and the Congress of Mexico declared war at the beginning of the Mexican–American War. Paredes' presidential successor was deposed in a coup, replaced by [[José Mariano Salas]]. Salas issued a new decree that restored the [[1824 Constitution of Mexico|Constitution of 1824]], ending the Centralist Republic and beginning the [[Second Federal Republic of Mexico]]. After the conclusion of the Mexican–American War, [[José Joaquín de Herrera]] became the second president of Mexico to finish his term (Mexico's first president completed his in 1829). It was during this time that Yucatán reunited with Mexico. A decisive factor for the reunion was the [[Caste War of Yucatán]] (a revolt by the indigenous [[Maya peoples|Maya]] population) for which Yucatán initially sought help from Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States, but ultimately reunited with Mexico for help.

Herrera peacefully turned over the presidency to the winner of the Federal Elections of 1850, General [[Mariano Arista]]. Despite being exiled from Mexico in 1848, Santa Anna would [[Antonio López de Santa Anna#President for the last time, 1853–1855|return to the presidency one last time]] during the [[1850s]].

==== El Salvador ====
* February – [[El Salvador]] proclaims itself an independent republic, bringing an end to the (already ''de facto'' defunct) [[Federal Republic of Central America]].

=== Caribbean ===

==== Barbados ====
* [[June 6]], [[1843]] – In [[Barbados]], [[Samuel Jackman Prescod]] is the first non-white person elected to the House of Assembly.

==== Dominican Republic ====
* [[February 27]], [[1844]] – The [[Dominican Republic]] gains independence from [[Haiti]].
* [[November 6]], [[1844]] – The [[Dominican Republic]] drafts its first [[Constitution]].

==== Haiti ====
* [[March 1]], [[1847]] – [[Faustin Soulouque]] declares himself [[Emperor]] of [[Haiti]].

==== Trinidad ====
* [[May 30]], [[1845]] – ''[[Fatel Razack]]'' (''Fath Al Razack'', "Victory of Allah the Provider", [[Arabic language|Arabic]]: قتح الرزاق) is the first ship to bring indentured labourers from [[India]] to [[Trinidad]], landing in the [[Gulf of Paria]] with 227 immigrants.<ref>When the British decided they were going to bring Indians to Trinidad this year, most of the traditional British ship owners did not wish to be involved. The ship was originally named ''Cecrops'', but upon delivery was renamed to ''Fath Al Razack''. The ship left [[Calcutta]] on [[February 16]].</ref>

=== South America ===

==== Brazil ====
* [[July 23]], [[1840]] – [[Pedro II of Brazil|Pedro II]] is declared "of age" prematurely and begins to reassert central control in [[Brazil]].
* [[July 18]], [[1841]] – [[Coronation]] ceremony of Emperor [[Pedro II of Brazil]] in [[Rio de Janeiro]].
* [[January 20]], [[1843]] – [[Honório Hermeto Carneiro Leão, Marquis of Paraná]], becomes ''de facto'' first [[Prime Minister of Brazil|prime minister]] of the [[Empire of Brazil]].
* [[September 4]], [[1843]] – The Emperor Dom [[Pedro II of Brazil]] marries Dona [[Teresa Cristina of the Two Sicilies]] in a state ceremony in [[Old Cathedral of Rio de Janeiro|Rio de Janeiro Cathedral]].

==== Uruguay ====
* [[February 3]], [[1843]] – [[Argentina]] supports Rosas of [[Uruguay]] and begins a siege of [[Montevideo]].

==== Paraguay ====
* [[1844]] – [[Carlos Antonio López]] becomes dictator of [[Paraguay]].

==== Argentina ====
* [[September 18]], [[1845]] – [[Anglo-French blockade of the Río de la Plata]] formally declared.
* [[November 20]], [[1845]] – Anglo-French blockade of the Río de la Plata: [[Battle of Vuelta de Obligado]]: The [[Argentine Confederation]] is narrowly defeated by an [[Anglo]]-[[France|French]] fleet on the waters of the [[Paraná River]] but Argentina attracts political support in South America.

==== Venezuela ====
* [[1843]] – [[Germans]] from the [[Black Forest]] region of Southern [[Baden]] migrate to [[Venezuela]].

==== Peru ====
* [[April 20]], [[1845]] – [[Ramón Castilla]] becomes president of [[Peru]].

==== Chile ====
* [[May 23]], [[1843]] – [[Chile]] takes possession of the [[Strait of Magellan]].