Editing 1820s (section)

== Politics and wars ==
{{See also|List of sovereign states in the 1820s}}
The [[Greek War of Independence]] and the [[Russo-Turkish War]] were two of the decade's more important conflicts. Meanwhile, [[colonialism in Africa]] had just begun to accelerate, and global trade between Asian powers (e.g. the [[Qing Dynasty]]) with European powers (mainly the [[British Empire|British]] and [[First French Empire|French]] empires) increased substantially. In [[South America]], [[State (polity)|states]] such as [[Bolivia]], [[Peru]], and [[Brazil]] gained independence from the [[Spanish Empire]] and [[Portuguese Empire]].

=== Global ===
* 1820: [[Anchor coinage]] is issued for use in some British colonies.

=== East Asia ===
==== Indonesia ====
{{Main|Dutch East Indies}}
* 1824 &ndash; The [[Netherlands|Dutch]] sign the Masang Agreement, temporarily ending hostilities in the [[Padri War]] in [[West Sumatra]].

===== Java War =====
{{Main|Java War}}
The Java War (also known as the "Diponegoro War") was fought in Java between 1825 and 1830. It started as a [[rebellion]] led by Prince [[Diponegoro]] after the Dutch decided to build a road across a piece of his property that contained his parents' tomb.

The troops of Prince Diponegoro were very successful in the beginning, controlling the middle of Java and besieging Yogyakarta. Furthermore, the Javanese population was supportive of Prince Diponegoro's cause, whereas the Dutch colonial authorities were initially very indecisive. As the Java war prolonged, Prince Diponegoro had difficulties in maintaining the numbers of his troops.  Prince Diponegoro started a fierce guerrilla war and it was not until 1827 that the Dutch army gained the upper hand.  The Dutch colonial army was able to fill its ranks with troops from [[Sulawesi]], and later on from the [[Netherlands]].

The rebellion finally ended in 1830, after Prince Diponegoro was tricked into entering Dutch custody near [[Magelang]], believing he was there for negotiations for a possible cease-fire.  It is estimated that 200,000<ref name="RicKlefs">M. C. RicKlefs: ''A History of modern Indonesia since 1300'', p.&nbsp;117.</ref> died over the course of the conflict, 8,000 being Dutch.<ref name="RicKlefs" />

==== Malaysia ====
{{Main|British Malaya}}
* November [[1821]] - [[Siamese invasion of Kedah]] &ndash; The [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] forces of [[Buddha Loetla Nabhalai|King Rama II]] achieved a rapid victory against those of [[Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin Halim Shah II]] of [[Sultanate of Kedah|Kedah]], in what is now northern [[Malaysia]]. The campaign initiated a period of two decades in which Kedah resisted Siamese control. The Sultan took refuge on [[Penang Island]], then under British control.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.san.beck.org/20-9-Siam,Laos,Cambodia1800-1950.html|title=Siam, Cambodia, and Laos 1800-1950 by Sanderson Beck|website=www.san.beck.org}}</ref>  By 1822 there was a rise in the population of the British territories caused by an influx of Malays displaced by the invasion.<ref>{{cite book|author=Nordin Hussin|title=Trade and Society in the Straits of Melaka: Dutch Melaka And English Penang, 1780–1830|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=64xZZ3gbajMC&pg=PA188|access-date=20 April 2012|year=2007|publisher=NIAS Press|isbn=978-87-91114-88-5|page=188}}</ref>
* [[1826]] &ndash; The [[Burney Treaty]] allowed the Siamese view of their rights to prevail in Kelah.<ref>[[Frank Athelstane Swettenham]], ''Map to Illustrate the Siamese Question'' (1893) p. 62; [https://archive.org/stream/apf3019.0001.001.umich.edu#page/62/mode/2up archive.org.]</ref>
* [[1826]] &ndash; The British [[crown colony]] of the [[Straits Settlements]] is established in what is now [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]].

==== Vietnam ====
{{Main|Nguyen dynasty}}
* [[February 14]], 1820 &ndash; [[Minh Mang]] starts to rule in [[Vietnam]].
* [[1825]] &ndash; [[Minh Mang]] outlaws the teaching of [[Christianity]] in [[Vietnam]].

==== Laos ====
{{Main|History of Laos to 1945}}
* [[1827]]: [[King Anouvong]] of [[Kingdom of Vientiane|Vientiane]] declares war on [[Thailand|Siam]] and successfully attacks [[Nakhon Ratchasima]].
* [[1828]] Siamese-Lao War: The [[Thai people|Siamese]] invade and sack the city of [[Vientiane]].
* [[November 12]], 1828: Anouvong is deposed and his kingdom is annexed by Siam. Large forced population transfers are made from Laos to the more securely held area of [[Isan]], and the Lao mueang is divided into smaller units to prevent another uprising.

==== Burma ====
{{Main|Konbaung dynasty}}
* 1824–1826: The [[First Anglo-Burmese War]] ended in a British victory, and by the [[Treaty of Yandaboo|Treaty of Yandabo]], Burma lost territory previously conquered in Assam, Manipur, and Arakan.<ref name=app>{{cite book | title=History of Burma | author=Lt. Gen. Sir Arthur P. Phayre | year=1967 | pages=236–247 | edition=Second | publisher=Susil Gupta | location=London}}</ref> The British also took possession of Tenasserim with the intention to use it as a bargaining chip in future negotiations with either Burma or Siam.<ref name="Hall">{{cite book|url=http://mission.itu.ch/MISSIONS/Myanmar/Burma/bur_history.pdf |author=D. G. E. Hall |year=1960 |title=Burma |publisher=Hutchinson University Library |pages=109–113 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050519230755/http://mission.itu.ch/MISSIONS/Myanmar/Burma/bur_history.pdf |archive-date=2005-05-19 }}</ref>

==== Siam (Thailand) ====
{{Main|Rattanakosin Kingdom}}
* 1824–1826 - [[Rattanakosin Kingdom]] (Siam): [[Buddha Loetla Nabhalai|Rama II]] died in 1824 and was peacefully succeeded by his son [[Jessadabodindra]] (Rama III). In 1825 the British sent another mission to Bangkok led by [[East India Company]] emissary [[Henry Burney]]. They had by now annexed southern Burma and were thus Siam's neighbours to the west, and they were also extending their control over [[British Malaya|Malaya]]. The King was reluctant to give in to British demands, but his advisors warned him that Siam would meet the same fate as Burma unless the British were accommodated. In 1826, therefore, Siam concluded its first commercial treaty with a western power, the [[Burney Treaty]]. Under the treaty, Siam agreed to establish a uniform taxation system, to reduce taxes on foreign trade and to abolish some of the royal monopolies. As a result, Siam's trade increased rapidly, many more foreigners settled in Bangkok, and western cultural influences began to spread. The kingdom became wealthier and its army better armed.

=== Australia ===
* 1824 &ndash; The name ''Australia'', recommended by [[Matthew Flinders]] in [[1804]], is finally adopted as the official name of the country once known as ''[[New Holland (Australia)|New Holland]]''.
* [[September 13]], 1824 &ndash; With his crew and 29 [[convicts]] aboard the ''Amity'', [[John Oxley]] arrives at and founds the [[Moreton Bay, Queensland|Moreton Bay]] Penal Settlement at what is now [[Redcliffe City, Queensland|Redcliffe]] in [[Queensland]], Australia, after leaving [[Sydney]].
* [[December 25]], [[1826]] &ndash;  Major [[Edmund Lockyer]] arrives at [[King George Sound]] to take possession of the western part of Australia, establishing a settlement near [[Albany, Western Australia|Albany]].
* [[June 3]], [[1829]] &ndash; The Swan River Colony (later to become the cities of [[Perth]] and [[Fremantle]]) is founded in [[Western Australia]]. This secures the western 'third' of the Australian landmass for the British.
* [[August 12]], [[1829]] &ndash; Mrs. Helen Dance, wife of the captain of the ship ''Sulphur'', cuts down a tree to mark the day of the founding of the town of [[Perth]], Western Australia.

=== Central Asia ===
* [[Caucasian War]] (1817–1864)
* [[1826]] &ndash; [[United Kingdom|Britain]] annexes [[Assam]].

=== South Asia ===
* [[Siege of Bharatpur (1825–1826)|Siege of Bharatpur]] – [[India]] (9 December 1825 – 18 January 1826) ended in British victory.
* [[December 4]], [[1829]] &ndash; [[History of India|India]]: In the face of fierce opposition, [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Lord William Bentinck]] carries a regulation declaring that all who abet [[Sati (practise)|sati]] in India are guilty of culpable [[homicide]].

=== Western Asia ===
* [[October 1]], [[1827]] &ndash; [[Russo-Persian War, 1826–1828]]: The Russians under [[Ivan Paskevich]] storm [[Yerevan]], ending a millennium of Muslim domination in [[Eastern Armenia]].
* [[February 22]], [[1828]] &ndash;[[Treaty of Turkmenchay]]: Russian-Persian peace treaty: Russia captures [[Eastern Armenia]] from [[Iran|Persia]].

=== Europe ===
[[File:January Suchodolski - Akhaltsikhe siege.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)|Russo-Turkish War]]]]

==== Eastern Europe ====
* [[April 6]] 1821 &ndash; The [[Greek War of Independence]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]] is proclaimed officially in South Greece.
* [[June 19]], 1821 &ndash; The [[Philikí Etaireía]] are decisively defeated by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] at [[Drăgăşani]] (in [[Wallachia]]).
* December [[1825]] &ndash; The [[Decembrist Revolt]] breaks out in Russia, but is thoroughly suppressed.
* [[December 1]], [[1825]] &ndash; [[Nicholas I of Russia]] succeeds his older brother [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I]].
* [[June 14]]&ndash;[[June 15]], [[1826]] &ndash; [[The Auspicious Incident]]: [[Mahmud II]], [[sultan]] of [[Ottoman Empire]], crushes the last mutiny of [[Janissary|janissaries]] in [[Istanbul]].
* [[September 29]], [[1828]] &ndash; [[Russo-Turkish War, 1828–1829]]: [[Siege of Varna (1828)|Varna is taken]] by the Russian army.
* [[July 2]], [[1829]] &ndash; [[Russo-Turkish War, 1828–1829]]: Russian Field-Marshal [[Hans Karl von Diebitsch]] launches the Transbalkan offensive, which brings the Russian army within 68&nbsp;km of [[Istanbul]].
* [[September 16]], [[1829]] &ndash; [[Russo-Turkish War, 1828–1829]]: The [[Treaty of Adrianople (1829)|Treaty of Adrianople]] gains for Russia some territory at the mouth of the [[Danube]] and along the eastern coast of the [[Black Sea]].

==== Northern Europe ====
* [[February 3]], [[1825]] &ndash; [[Vendsyssel-Thy]], once part of the [[Jutland]] peninsula that formed westernmost Denmark, becomes an island after a flood drowns its 1&nbsp;km wide [[isthmus]].
* [[September 27]], [[1825]] - The world's first modern railway, the [[Stockton and Darlington Railway]], opens with engineer [[George Stephenson]] driving the first public train pulled by the steam engine ''[[Locomotion No 1]]''.<ref name="Pocket On This Day">{{cite book|title=Penguin Pocket On This Day|publisher=Penguin Reference Library|isbn=0-14-102715-0|year=2006}}</ref>
* [[September 4]], [[1827]] &ndash; [[Finland]]: The [[Great Fire of Turku]] destroys 3/4 of the city, with many human casualties.

==== Central Europe ====
* [[October 25]], 1820 &ndash;[[November 20]] &ndash; The [[Congress of Troppau]] ([[Opava]]) is convened between the rulers of Russia, Austria and [[Prussia]].
* October&ndash;December, [[1822]] &ndash; [[Congress of Verona]]: Russia, Austria and [[Prussia]] approve [[France|French]] intervention in Spain.
* [[July 6]], 1825 &ndash; The Duke of [[Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck]] gains possession of [[Glücksburg]] and changes his title to [[Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg]]. The line of [[Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg]] later becomes the [[dynasty|royal house]] of [[Greece]], Denmark and Norway.

==== Southern Europe ====
* [[January 1]], 1820 &ndash; [[Trienio Liberal|A constitutionalist military insurrection]] at [[Cádiz]] leads to the summoning of the [[Spain|Spanish]] Parliament ([[March 7]]) (see [[Mid-nineteenth century Spain]]).
* [[March 9]], 1820 &ndash; King [[Ferdinand VII of Spain]] accepts the new constitution, beginning the Liberal Triennium ("Trienio Liberal").
* July 1820 &ndash; A [[Constitutionalist]] revolution occurs in the [[Kingdom of the Two Sicilies]].
* [[August 24]], 1820 &ndash; A [[Constitutionalist]] insurrection breaks out at [[Porto|Oporto]], [[Portugal]].
* [[September 15]], 1820 &ndash; A revolution breaks out in [[Lisbon]] (see [[History of Portugal#Crises of the nineteenth century|Portugal's crises of the Nineteenth Century]]).
* [[September 22]], [[1822]] &ndash; [[Portugal]] approves its first Constitution.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://app.parlamento.pt/site_antigo/ingles/constitucionalism/const_monarchy/index.html|title=The Constitutional Monarchy|date=2013-10-22|website=Assembly of the Republic of Portugal|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022105528/http://app.parlamento.pt/site_antigo/ingles/constitucionalism/const_monarchy/index.html|archive-date=22 October 2013|url-status=dead|access-date=2019-01-16}}</ref>
* [[January 4]], [[1825]] &ndash; King [[Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies]] is succeeded by his son [[Francis I of the Two Sicilies]].
* [[May 28]], [[1826]] &ndash; [[Pedro I of Brazil]] abdicates as King of Portugal.
* [[June 23]], [[1828]] &ndash; [[History of Portugal|Portugal]]: King [[Miguel I of Portugal|Miguel I]] overthrows his niece Queen [[Maria II of Portugal|Maria II]], beginning the [[Liberal Wars]].

===== Greek War of Independence =====
[[File:Navarino.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[[October 20]]: ''Naval Battle of Navarino'' by [[Ambroise Louis Garneray]]]]
{{Main|Greek War of Independence|First Hellenic Republic}}
At the start of the decade, most of [[Greece]] was under the rule of the [[Ottoman Empire]], as it had been since 1453, despite frequent revolts.<ref>Woodhouse, ''A Story of Modern Greece'', 'The Dark Age of Greece (1453–1800)', p. 113, Faber and Faber (1968)</ref>  In early 1821, a secret organization called the [[Filiki Eteria]] instigated several battles that, together with the blessing of a Greek flag and proclamation of uprising by [[Germanos of Patras|Bishop Germanos of Patras]] on March 25, marked the beginning of the revolution.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1436276/Greek-Independence-Day|title=Greek Independence Day.|publisher= www.britannica.com |access-date=2009-09-09|quote= The Greek revolt was precipitated on March 25 (April 6 in Gregorian Calendar), 1821, when Bishop Germanos of Patras raised the flag of revolution over the Monastery of Agia Lavra in the Peloponnese. The cry "Freedom or Death" became the motto of the revolution. The Greeks experienced early successes on the battlefield, including the capture of Athens in June 1822, but infighting ensued. }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Frazee, Charles A. |title=The Orthodox Church and independent Greece, 1821–1852 |publisher=CUP Archive |year=1969 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/orthodoxchurchin0000fraz/page/18 18–20] |isbn=0-521-07247-6 |quote=On 25 March, Germanos gave the revolution its great symbol when he raised a banner with the cross on it at the monastery of Ayia Lavra. |url=https://archive.org/details/orthodoxchurchin0000fraz/page/18 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= McManners, John |title=The Oxford illustrated history of Christianity |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |pages=521–524 |isbn=0-19-285439-9 |quote= The Greek uprising and the church. Bishop Germanos of old Patras blesses the Greek banner at the outset of the national revolt against the Turks on 25 March 1821. The solemnity of the scene was enhanced two decades later in this painting by T. Vryzakis….The fact that one of the Greek bishops, Germanos of Old Patras, had enthusiastically blessed the Greek uprising at the onset (25 March 1821) and had thereby helped to unleash a holy war, was not to gain the church a satisfactory, let alone a dominant, role in the new order of things. }}</ref>  The uprising successfully established a foothold in the [[Peloponnese]], [[Siege of Tripolitsa|seizing Tripolitsa]] in September 1821, and had some success in [[Crete]], [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]] and [[Central Greece (geographic region)|Central Greece]].

Between 1821 and 1824, [[First National Assembly at Epidaurus|first]] and [[Second National Assembly at Astros|second]] national assemblies were held, and the constitutions [[Greek Constitution of 1822|of 1822]] and [[Greek Constitution of 1823|of 1823]] were established.  However, revolutionary activity was fragmented, resulting in the [[Greek civil wars of 1824–1825|civil wars of 1824–1825]].  The Greek side withstood the Turkish attacks because, during this period, the Ottoman military campaigns were periodic and uncoordinated.

That changed when the Ottoman Sultan [[Mahmud II]] negotiated with [[Mehmet Ali of Egypt]], who agreed to send his son [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt|Ibrahim Pasha]] to Greece with an army to suppress the revolt in return for territorial gain. Ibrahim landed in the [[Peloponnese]] in February 1825 and secured most of the peninsula by the end of 1825.  He then helped break the [[Third Siege of Missolonghi|siege of Missolonghi]].  Although Ibrahim was [[Ottoman–Egyptian Invasion of Mani|defeated in Mani]], he had succeeded in suppressing most of the revolt in the Peloponnese and [[Athens]] had been retaken.

Following years of negotiation, three Great Powers, [[Russian Empire|Russia]], the United Kingdom and [[France]] had come to agree to the formation of an autonomous Greek state under Ottoman [[suzerainty]], as stipulated in the [[Treaty of London (1827)|Treaty of London]]. Ottoman refusal to accept these terms led to the [[Battle of Navarino]], which effectively secured complete Greek independence.  That year, the [[Third National Assembly at Troezen]] established the [[First Hellenic Republic]].  With the help of a [[Morea expedition|French expeditionary force]], the Greeks drove the Turks out of the Peloponnese and proceeded to the captured part of Central Greece by 1828. As a result of years of negotiation, Greece was finally recognized as an independent nation in May 1832.

==== Western Europe ====
===== United Kingdom =====
In the 1820s, the British government was formally headed by [[George IV of the United Kingdom|King George IV]], but in practice, was led by his [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|prime minister]]s [[Robert Banks Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool|Lord Liverpool]] (1812–1827), [[George Canning]] (1827), [[Frederick John Robinson, 1st Viscount Goderich|Lord Goderich]] (1827–1828), and [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Duke of Wellington]] (1828–1830).  This decade was largely peaceful for Britain, with some foreign intervention.  The British supported the Portuguese liberals in the [[Liberal Wars]], and supported Greek rebels in the [[Greek War of Independence|war for independence]].  During this time, [[London]] became the largest city of the world, taking the lead from [[Beijing]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011201a.htm|title=Largest Cities Through History|work=About.com Geography|access-date=2011-06-29|archive-date=2016-08-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160818124242/http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011201a.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Domestic tensions ran high at the start of the decade, with the [[Peterloo Massacre]] (1819), the [[Cato Street Conspiracy]] (1820), and the [[Radical War]] (1820) in Scotland.  However, by the end of the 1820s, many repressive laws were repealed.  In 1822, Britain repealed the [[death penalty]] for over 100 crimes, and punishments such as [[Hanged, drawn and quartered|drawing and quartering]] and [[flagellation]] fell out of use. [[Seditious Meetings Act 1819|Seditious Meetings prevention Act]] (barring large assemblies) and the [[Combination Act 1799|Combination Act]] (banning trade unions) were repealed in 1824. The [[Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829|Roman Catholic Relief Act]] by [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] granted a substantial measure of [[Catholic emancipation]] in Britain and [[History of Ireland (1801–1923)#Catholic emancipation|Ireland]].<ref name="Pocket On This Day"/>

===== France =====
* [[May 5]], [[1821]] &ndash; Emperor [[Napoléon I]] dies in exile on [[Saint Helena]] of stomach cancer.
* [[September 16]], 1824 &ndash; [[Charles X of France|Charles X]] succeeds his brother [[Louis XVIII of France|Louis XVIII]] as King of France.
* [[January 4]], [[1828]] &ndash; [[History of France|France]]: The [[Jean Baptiste Gay, vicomte de Martignac|Vicomte de Martignac]] succeeds the [[Jean-Baptiste Guillaume Joseph, comte de Villèle|Comte de Villèle]] as [[Prime Minister of France]].
* [[August 8]], [[1829]] &ndash; [[History of France|France]]: The [[Prince de Polignac]] succeeds the [[Jean Baptiste Gay, vicomte de Martignac|Vicomte de Martignac]] as [[Prime Minister of France]].

=== Africa ===
[[File:1827 Finley Map of Africa - Geographicus - Africa-finley-1827.jpg|thumb|left|Anthony Finley's 1827 map of Africa]]
* [[February 6]], 1820: 86 free [[African American]] colonists sail from [[New York City]] to [[Freetown, Sierra Leone]].
* [[Americo-Liberian]]s begin to settle in the Colony of [[Liberia]] with the support of the [[American Colonization Society]]
* [[June 14]], 1821 &ndash; King [[Badi VII]] of [[Funj sultanate of Sinnar|Sennar]] surrenders his throne and realm to Ismail Pasha, general of the [[Ottoman Empire]], ending the existence of that Sudanese kingdom.
* [[1822]] &ndash; The first group of freed slaves from the United States arrive in modern-day [[Liberia]] and found [[Monrovia]] (see [[History of Liberia]]).
* [[January 22]], 1824 &ndash; The [[Ashanti people|Ashanti]] crush [[United Kingdom|British]] forces in the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]], killing the British governor [[Charles MacCarthy (British Army officer)|Sir Charles MacCarthy]] (see also [[History of Ghana#British Dominance|Wars between Britain and Ashanti in Ghana]] and [[Ashanti Confederacy]]).
* [[August 18]], [[1826]] &ndash; Explorer [[Alexander Gordon Laing]] becomes the first European to reach [[Timbuktu]].<ref name="Pocket On This Day"/>
* April [[1827]] &ndash; [[History of Ottoman Algeria|Ottoman Algeria]]: Husain Dei slaps the [[France|French]] [[consul]] Decalina on the face, eventually leading to war and [[French rule in Algeria]].

=== North America ===
==== British North America ====
* [[July 8]], [[1822]] &ndash; The [[Chippewas]] turn over huge tract of land in [[Ontario]] to the United Kingdom.
* [[November 30]], 1824 &ndash; The first sod is turned in [[Ontario]], for the first of four [[Welland Canal]]s (the canal opens for a trial run exactly 5 years later to the day).

==== United States ====
[[File:1823 Melish Map of the United States of America - Geographicus - USA-melish-1822.jpg|thumb|right|[[John Melish]] map of the United States circa 1822]]
At the beginning of the 1820s, the United States stretched from the Atlantic Ocean through to (roughly) the western edge of the Mississippi basin, though Florida, Michigan, Wisconsin and all present-day states fully west of the Mississippi had yet to be granted statehood.  Two states were admitted to the union during this decade: [[Maine]] in 1820 and [[Missouri]] in 1821.  The [[Adams–Onís Treaty]], signed in 1819 and ratified by Spain in 1821, ceded Florida to the United States, and established a boundary between [[New Spain]] and the United States.

Slavery was widespread throughout the southern United States.  According to the [[1820 United States census|1820 U.S. Census]], the slave population at that time was 1,538,000.<ref name="Historic US Census data">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/censusdata/hiscendata.html|title=Selected Historical Decennial Census Population and Housing Counts|author=Population Division|publisher=US Census}}</ref>  The [[Missouri Compromise]] of 1820 prohibited slavery in the former [[Louisiana Territory]] north of the [[parallel 36°30′ north]] except within the boundaries of the proposed state of [[Missouri]].  By the [[1830 United States census|1830 U.S. Census]], the slave population had risen to 2,009,043.<ref name="Historic US Census data"/>  With the coordination of the [[American Colonization Society]], many freed African-Americans repatriated to Africa during this decade to the newly formed colony of [[Liberia]].

The political mood at the start of the 1820s was referred to as the [[Era of Good Feelings]], following the collapse of the [[Federalist]] party. [[James Monroe]], the sitting U.S. president since 1817, was [[U.S. presidential election, 1820|re-elected in 1820]], virtually unopposed.  In 1823, Monroe introduced the [[Monroe Doctrine]] in the [[State of the Union Address]], declaring that any European attempts to recolonize the Americas would be considered a hostile act towards the United States.

The feeling of unity during the Monroe administration was dispelled in [[U.S. presidential election, 1824|the presidential election of 1824]], which due to an Electoral College stalemate, was decided in the [[United States House of Representatives]]. [[John Quincy Adams]] was chosen as the sixth U.S. president, despite receiving only 30.9% of the popular vote to Andrew Jackson's 41.3%.  This gave rise to [[Jacksonian Democracy|Jacksonian Nationalism]] and the rise of the modern [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]],<ref>Brown, 1966, p. 22</ref> with [[Andrew Jackson]] elected in [[1828 United States presidential election|the 1828 election]].

==== Mexico ====
{{Main|Mexican War of Independence|First Mexican Empire|United Mexican States (1824–1864)}}

After ten years of civil war in Mexico (then called the "[[New Spain|Viceroyalty of New Spain]]") and the death of two of its founders, by early 1820 the Mexican independence movement was stalemated and close to collapse.  However, the [[Army of the Three Guarantees]] was formed under the command of Colonel [[Agustín de Iturbide]] with the support of patriots and loyalists to secure independence for Mexico and the protection of Roman Catholicism.  Iturbide's army was joined by rebel forces from all over Mexico, and quickly gained control of Mexico. On August 24, 1821, representatives of the Spanish crown and Iturbide signed the [[Treaty of Córdoba]], which recognized the [[First Mexican Empire|Mexican Empire]] under the terms of the [[Plan of Iguala]].

On September 27 the Army of the Three Guarantees entered Mexico City, and the following day Iturbide proclaimed the independence of the Mexican Empire.  The newly formed Mexican congress eventually declared Iturbide emperor of Mexico on May 19, 1822.  Later that year, Iturbide dissolved Congress and replaced it with a sympathetic junta.  However, on [[March 19]], 1823 Iturbide abdicated.

The [[United Mexican States (1824–1864)|First Federal Republic]] was established on October 4, 1824. In the new constitution, the republic took the name of [[Mexico|United Mexican States]], and was defined as a representative [[federal republic]], with [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholicism]] as the [[Confessional state|official and unique religion]].<ref name="const.1824">{{Cite web|url=http://tarlton.law.utexas.edu/constitutions/text/1824index.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318225631/http://tarlton.law.utexas.edu/constitutions/text/1824index.html|url-status=dead|title=Federal Constitution of the United Mexican States (1824)|archivedate=March 18, 2012}}</ref>
[[Guadalupe Victoria]] was the first President of Mexico from 1824 until 1829.

After [[Manuel Gómez Pedraza]] won the election to succeed Victoria, [[Vicente Guerrero]] staged a [[coup d'état]] and took the presidency on April 1, 1829.<ref name="The Majestic Life of President Vicente Ramon Guerrero">{{cite web|last=Katz|first=William Loren|title=The Majestic Life of President Vicente Ramon Guerrero |url=http://www.cwo.com/~lucumi/guerrero.html|publisher=William Loren Katz|access-date=6 June 2010}}</ref>  Guerrero was deposed in a rebellion under Vice-president [[Anastasio Bustamante]] in December 1829.

=== Caribbean ===
* [[December 1]], 1821 &ndash; The [[Dominican Republic]] declares independence from Spain only to be invaded by [[Haiti]] in 1822 (see [[History of the Dominican Republic]]).
* [[February 9]], [[1822]] &ndash; The [[invasion|invading]] [[Haiti]]an forces led by [[Jean-Pierre Boyer]] arrive in [[Santo Domingo]], to overthrow the newly founded [[Dominican Republic|Republic]].
* [[April 17]], [[1825]] &ndash; [[Charles X of France]] recognizes [[Haiti]], 21 years after it expelled the French following the successful [[Haitian Revolution]], and demands the payment of 150 million gold francs, 30 million of which Haiti must finance through France itself, as down payment.

=== Central America ===
* [[February 20]], 1820 &ndash; A revolt begins in [[Santa María Chiquimula]], [[Totonicapán Department|Totonicapán department]] of [[Guatemala]].
* The [[United Provinces of Central America]] were formed in 1823.
* [[September 15]], 1821 &ndash; [[Guatemala]], [[El Salvador]], [[Honduras]], [[Nicaragua]] and [[Costa Rica]] gain independence from Spain (see [[History of Central America#Independence|History of Central America]]).
* [[November 28]], 1821 &ndash; [[Panama]] declares independence from Spain (see [[History of Panama#Spanish colonial period|History of Panama]]).
* [[July 1]]&ndash; The congress of Central America declares absolute independence from Spain, Mexico, and any other foreign nation, including [[North America]] and a Republican system of government is established.
* [[June 22]], [[1826]] &ndash; The [[Pan-Americanism|Pan-American]] [[Congress of Panama]] tries (unsuccessfully) to unify the [[Americas|American]] republics.

=== South America ===
[[File:BatallaCarabobo01.JPG|right|thumb|''La Batalla de Carabobo'' by [[Martín Tovar y Tovar]], depicting the Battle of Carabobo, in which Simón Bolívar secured Venezuela's independence from Spain in 1821]]

==== Gran Colombia ====
* [[October 9]], 1820 &ndash; [[Guayaquil]] declares independence from Spain (see also [[History of Ecuador]]).
* [[June 24]], 1821 &ndash; [[Battle of Carabobo]]: [[Simón Bolívar]] wins [[Venezuela]]'s independence from Spain (see [[History of Venezuela#19th century: independence|Venezuela's independence]]).
* [[September 7]], 1821 &ndash; The [[Republic of Gran Colombia]] (a [[federation]] covering much of present-day [[Venezuela]], [[Colombia]], [[Panama]], and [[Ecuador]]) is established, with [[Simón Bolívar]] as the founding [[President (government title)|President]] and [[Francisco de Paula Santander]] as [[vice president]].
* [[May 24]], [[1822]] &ndash; [[Battle of Pichincha]]: [[Simón Bolívar]] secures the independence of [[Quito]].
* [[July 26]], [[1822]] &ndash; [[José de San Martín]] arrives in [[Guayaquil]], [[Ecuador]], to [[Guayaquil conference|meet]] with [[Simón Bolívar]].
* [[July 27]], [[1822]] &ndash; [[Simón Bolívar]] and [[General]] [[José de San Martín]] meet in [[Guayaquil]]. Bolívar later annexes [[Guayaquil]] (See [[Guayaquil Conference]]).
* [[June 3]], [[1828]] &ndash; [[Gran Colombia – Peru War]]: President [[Simón Bolívar]] declares war on Peru.
* [[August 27]], [[1828]] &ndash; [[Simón Bolívar]] declares himself dictator of Gran Colombia.

==== Bolivia ====
* [[August 6]], 1825 &ndash; [[Bolivia]] [[Bolivian War of Independence|gains its independence]] from Spain as a [[republic]] with the instigation of [[Simón Bolívar]].

==== Peru ====
* [[July 28]], 1821 &ndash; [[Peru]] declares independence from Spain (see [[History of Peru#Wars of independence (1811–1824)|Peru's Independence from Spain]]).
* [[September 10]], 1823 &ndash; [[Simón Bolívar]] is named President of [[Peru]].
* [[February 10]], 1824 &ndash; [[Simón Bolívar]] is proclaimed [[dictator]] of [[Peru]].
* [[December 9]], 1824 &ndash; [[Battle of Ayacucho]]: Peruvian forces defeat the Spanish.
* [[February 10]], [[1825]] &ndash; [[Simón Bolívar]] gives up his title of [[dictator]] of Peru and takes the alternative title of ''Liberator''.

==== Brazil ====
* 1822: [[Brazil]] gains independence
* [[September 7]], [[1822]] &ndash; [[Brazil]] declares its independence from [[Portugal]] (see [[Empire of Brazil#Brazilian independence|Brazilian independence]]).
* [[October 12]], [[1822]] &ndash; [[Peter I of Brazil]] is declared the constitutional [[emperor]] of the [[Empire of Brazil|Brazilian Empire]].
* [[December 1]], [[1822]] &ndash; [[Peter I of Brazil|Peter I]] is crowned as [[Emperor]] of [[Brazil]] (see [[Empire of Brazil#The reign of Pedro I, 1822–31|The reign of Pedro I, 1822–31]]).
* [[April 26]], [[1828]] &ndash; Treaty of Commerce and Navigation signed between [[Brazil]] and Denmark, establishing diplomatic relations between the two countries.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FZsAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA717|title=British and Foreign State Papers|year=1829|publisher=Great Britain. Foreign Office |via=Harvard University}}</ref>

==== Argentina–Brazil War ====
* [[March 7]], [[1827]] &ndash; [[Brazil]]ian marines sail up the [[Río Negro (Argentina)|Rio Negro]] and attack the temporary naval base of [[Carmen de Patagones]], [[Argentina]]; they are defeated by the local citizens.
* [[April 7]]&ndash;[[April 8]], [[1827]] &ndash; [[Battle of Monte Santiago]]: A squadron of the Brazilian Imperial Navy defeats [[Argentina|Argentine]] vessels in a major naval engagement.
* [[February 20]], [[1827]] &ndash; [[Battle of Ituzaingo]] (Passo do Rosário): A force of the Brazilian Imperial Army meets [[Argentina|Argentine]]–[[Uruguay]]an troops in combat.
* [[August 27]], [[1828]] &ndash; [[History of South America|South America]]: [[Brazil]] and [[Argentina]] recognize the [[History of Uruguay#Struggle for independence, 1811–1828|independence of Uruguay]].

==== Uruguay ====
* [[July 18]], 1825 &ndash; [[Uruguay]] declares independence from [[Brazil]] (see [[History of Uruguay#Struggle for independence, 1811–1828|Uruguay's independence]]).
* [[August 27]], [[1828]] &ndash; [[History of South America|South America]]: [[Brazil]] and [[Argentina]] recognize the [[History of Uruguay#Struggle for independence, 1811–1828|independence of Uruguay]].

==== Argentina ====
* 1820: The [[Argentine Confederation]] ([[Argentina]]) establishes a [[penal colony]] in the [[Falkland Islands|Malvinas]].
* [[February 8]], [[1826]] &ndash; Unitarian [[Bernardino Rivadavia]] becomes the first President of [[Argentina]].

==== Chile ====
* [[February 6]], 1820 &ndash; [[Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald|Lord Cochrane]] [[Capture of Valdivia|occupies Valdivia]] in the name of the Republic of [[Chile]].
* [[September 4]], 1821 &ndash; [[Chile]]an general [[José Miguel Carrera]] is executed by an Argentinian military tribunal in the city of [[Mendoza, Argentina|Mendoza]].

=== Pacific Islands ===
* [[August 21]], 1821 &ndash; [[Jarvis Island]] is discovered by the crew of the Eliza Frances.
* [[July 14]], [[1827]] &ndash; [[Kingdom of Hawaii]]: The [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu|Diocese of Honolulu]] is founded.