A pyramid (Template:Etymology)<ref>πυραμίςTemplate:Webarchive, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref><ref>The word meant "a kind of cake of roasted wheat-grains preserved in honey"; the Egyptian pyramids were named after its form (R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 1261).</ref> is a structure whose visible surfaces are triangular in broad outline and converge toward the top, making the appearance roughly a pyramid in the geometric sense. The base of a pyramid can be of any polygon shape, such as triangular or quadrilateral, and its surface-lines either filled or stepped.
A pyramid has the majority of its mass closer to the ground<ref>Centre of volume is one quarter of the way up—see Centre of mass.</ref> with less mass towards the pyramidion at the apex. This is due to the gradual decrease in the cross-sectional area along the vertical axis with increasing elevation. This offers a weight distribution that allowed early civilizations to create monumental structures.
The Mesopotamians built the earliest pyramidal structures, called ziggurats. In ancient times, these were brightly painted in gold/bronze. They were constructed of sun-dried mud-brick, and little remains of them. Ziggurats were built by the Sumerians, Babylonians, Elamites, Akkadians, and Assyrians. Each ziggurat was part of a temple complex that included other buildings. The ziggurat's precursors were raised platforms that date from the Ubaid period<ref name="Crawford, page 73">Crawford, page 73Template:Citation not found</ref> of the fourth millennium BC.
The earliest ziggurats began near the end of the Early Dynastic Period.<ref>Crawford, page 73-74Template:Citation not found</ref> The original pyramidal structure, the anu ziggurat, dates to around 4000 BC. The White Temple was built on top of it circa 3500 BC.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Built in receding tiers upon a rectangular, oval, or square platform, the ziggurat was a pyramidal structure with a flat top. Sun-baked bricks made up the core of the ziggurat with facings of fired bricks on the outside. The facings were often glazed in different colors and may have had astrological significance. Kings sometimes had their names engraved on them. The number of tiers ranged from two to seven. It is assumed that they had shrines at the top, but no archaeological evidence supports this and the only textual evidence is from Herodotus.<ref>Crawford, page 85Template:Citation not found</ref> Access to the shrine would have been by a series of ramps on one side of the ziggurat or by a spiral ramp from base to summit.
The most famous African pyramids are in Egypt—huge structures built of bricks or stones, primarily limestone, some of which are among the world's largest constructions. They are shaped in reference to the sun's rays. Most had a smoothed white limestone surface. Many of the facing stones have fallen or were removed and used for construction in Cairo.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The capstone was usually made of limestone, granite or basalt and some were plated with electrum.<ref name="pennstate-pyramid">Template:Cite web</ref>
Ancient Egyptian pyramids were, in most cases, placed west of the river Nile because the divine pharaoh's soul was meant to join with the sun during its descent before continuing with the sun in its eternal round.<ref name="pennstate-pyramid" /> As of 2008, some 135 pyramids had been discovered in Egypt,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> most located near Cairo.<ref name="Filer2006">Template:Cite book</ref>
While African pyramids are commonly associated with Egypt, Sudan has 220 extant pyramids, the most in the world.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Nubian pyramids were constructed (roughly 240 of them) at three sites in Sudan to serve as tombs for the kings and queens of Napata and Meroë. The pyramids of Kush, also known as Nubian Pyramids, have different characteristics than those of Egypt. The Nubian pyramids had steeper sides than the Egyptian ones. Pyramids were built in Sudan as late as 200 AD.
UNESCO describes the tomb as an example of the monumental mud-building traditions of the West African Sahel. The complex includes the pyramidal tomb, two mosques, a cemetery and an assembly ground. At 17 metres (56 ft) in height it is the largest pre-colonialarchitectural monument in Gao. It is a notable example of the Sudano-Sahelian architectural style that later spread throughout the region.
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One of the unique structures of Igbo culture was the Nsude pyramids, in the Nigerian town of Nsude, northern Igboland. Ten pyramidal structures were built of clay/mud. The first base section was Template:Convert in circumference and Template:Convert in height. The next stack was Template:Convert in circumference. Circular stacks continued to the top. The structures were temples for the god Ala, who was believed to reside there. A stick was placed at the top to represent the god's residence. The structures were laid in groups of five parallel to each other. Because it was built of clay/mud like the Deffufa of Nubia, over time periodic reconstruction has been required.<ref>Basden, G. S(1966). Among the Ibos of Nigeria, 1912. Psychology Press: p. 109, Template:ISBN</ref>
Pausanias (2nd century AD) mentions two buildings resembling pyramids, one, 19 kilometres (12 mi) southwest of a still standing structure at Hellenikon,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> a common tomb for soldiers who died in a legendary struggle for the throne of Argos and another that he was told was the tomb of Argives killed in a battle around 669/8 BC. Neither survives and no evidence indicates that they resembled Egyptian pyramids.
At least two surviving pyramid-like structures are available to study, one at Hellenikon and the other at Ligourio/Ligurio, a village near the ancient theatre Epidaurus. These buildings have inwardly sloping walls, but bear no other resemblance to Egyptian pyramids. They had large central rooms (unlike Egyptian pyramids) and the Hellenikon structure is rectangular rather than square, Template:Convert which means that the sides could not have met at a point.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The stone used to build these structures was limestone quarried locally and was cut to fit, not into freestanding blocks like the Great Pyramid of Giza.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
These structures were dated from pot shards excavated from the floor and grounds. The latest estimates are around the 5th and 4th centuries. Normally this technique is used for dating pottery, but researchers used it to try to date stone flakes from the structure walls. This launched debate about whether or not these structures are actually older than Egypt, part of the Black Athena controversy.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Lefkowitz criticised this research, suggesting that some of the research was done not to determine the reliability of the dating method, as was suggested, but to back up a claim and to make points about pyramids and Greek civilization. She claimed that not only were the results imprecise, but that other structures mentioned in the research are not in fact pyramids, e.g. a tomb alleged to be the tomb of Amphion and Zethus near Thebes, a structure at Stylidha (Thessaly) which is a long wall, etc. She pushed the possibility that the stones that were dated might have been recycled from earlier constructions. She claimed that earlier research from the 1930s, confirmed in the 1980s by Fracchia, was ignored.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Liritzis responded that Lefkowitz failed to understand and misinterpreted the methodology.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
The Pyramids of Güímar refer to six rectangular pyramid-shaped, terraced structures, built from lava without mortar. They are located in the district of Chacona, part of the town of Güímar on the island of Tenerife in the Canary Islands. The structures were dated to the 19th century and their function explained as a byproduct of contemporary agricultural techniques.
AutochthonousGuanche traditions as well as surviving images indicate that similar structures (also known as, "Morras", "Majanos", "Molleros", or "Paredones") were built in many locations on the island.Template:Citation needed However, over time they were dismantled and used as building material. Güímar hostred nine pyramids, only six of which survive.
Andean cultures used pyramids in various architectural structures such as the ones in Caral, Túcume and Chavín de Huantar, constructed around the same time as early Egyptian pyramids.
Several Mesoamerican cultures built pyramid-shaped structures. Mesoamerican pyramids were usually stepped, with temples on top, more similar to the Mesopotamian ziggurat than the Egyptian pyramid.
The largest by volume is the Great Pyramid of Cholula, in the Mexican state of Puebla. Constructed from the 3rd century BC to the 9th century AD, this pyramid is the world's largest monument, and is still not fully excavated. The third largest pyramid in the world, the Pyramid of the Sun, at Teotihuacan, is also located in Mexico. An unusual pyramid with a circular plan survives at the site of Cuicuilco, now inside Mexico City and mostly covered with lava from an eruption of the Xitle Volcano in the 1st century BC. Several circular stepped pyramids called Guachimontones survive in Teuchitlán, Jalisco.
Many pre-Columbian Native American societies of ancient North America built large pyramidal earth structures known as platform mounds. Among the largest and best-known of these structures is Monks Mound at the site of Cahokia in what became Illinois, completed around 1100 AD. It has a base larger than that of the Great Pyramid. Many mounds underwent repeated episodes of expansion. They are believed to have played a central role in the mound-building peoples' religious life. Documented uses include semi-public chief's house platforms, public temple platforms, mortuary platforms, charnel house platforms, earth lodge/town house platforms, residence platforms, square ground and rotunda platforms, and dance platforms.<ref name="PLATFORM">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="HANDBOOK">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="FLORIDAANTHRO">Template:Cite journal</ref> Cultures that built substructure mounds include the Troyville culture, Coles Creek culture, Plaquemine culture and Mississippian cultures.
The step pyramid is the basic design of the 8th century Borobudur Buddhist monument in Central Java.<ref>Template:Cite bookTemplate:Dead link</ref> However later Java temples were influenced by Indian Hindu architecture, as exemplified by the spires of Prambanan temple. In the 15th century, during late Majapahit period, Java saw the revival of indigenous Austronesian elements as displayed by Sukuh temple that somewhat resemble Mesoamerican pyramids, and also stepped pyramids of Mount Penanggungan.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
In east Asia, Buddhist stupas were usually represented as tall pagodas. However, some pyramidal stupas survive. One theory is that these pyramids were inspired by the Borobudur monument through Sumatran and Javanese monks.<ref name="Sakai">Template:Cite web</ref> A similar Buddhist monument survives in Vrang, Tajikistan.<ref name="Natgeo">Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref name="Kumayama">Template:Cite magazine</ref> At least nine Buddhist step pyramids survive, 4 from former Gyeongsang Province of Korea, 3 from Japan, 1 from Indonesia (Borobudur) and 1 from Tajikistan.<ref name="Sakai"/><ref name="Kumayama"/>
Two pyramid-shaped tombs were erected in Maudlin's Cemetery, Ireland, c. 1840, belonging to the De Burgh family.
File:Louvre at dusk.JPGLouvre Pyramid (Paris, France)The Louvre Pyramid in Paris, France, in the court of the Louvre Museum, is a 20.6 metre (about 70 foot) glass structure that acts as a museum entrance. It was designed by American architect I. M. Pei and completed in 1989. The Pyramide Inversée (Inverted Pyramid) is displayed in the underground Louvre shopping mall.
The Tama-Re village was an Egyptian-themed set of buildings and monuments built near Eatonton, Georgia by Nuwaubians in 1993 that was mostly demolished after it was sold in 2005.
A former museum/monument in Tirana, Albania is commonly known as the "Pyramid of Tirana". It differs from typical pyramids in having a radial rather than square or rectangular shape, and gently sloped sides that make it short in comparison to the size of its base.
The Karlsruhe Pyramid is a pyramid made of red sandstone, located in the centre of the market square of Karlsruhe, Germany. It was erected in 1823–1825 over the vault of the city's founder, Margrave Charles III William (1679–1738).
The Time pyramid in Wemding, Germany is a pyramid begun in 1993 and scheduled for completion in the year 3183.<ref name="Conception" >ConceptionTemplate:Webarchive Official Zeitpyramide website, accessed: 14 December 2010</ref>
The Donkin Memorial was erected on a Xhosa reserve in 1820 by Cape Governor Sir Rufane Shaw Donkin in memory of his late wife Elizabeth, in Port Elizabeth, South Africa. The pyramid is used in many different coats-of-arms associated with Port Elizabeth.
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