Manx language
Template:Short description Template:Use British English Template:Use dmy dates Template:Infobox language Template:Infobox ethnonym
Manx (Template:Langx or Template:Lang, Template:IPA or Template:IPA),<ref>Jackson 1955, 49</ref> also known as Manx Gaelic, is a Gaelic language of the insular Celtic branch of the Celtic language family, itself a branch of the Indo-European language family. Manx is the heritage language of the Manx people.
Although few children native to the Isle of Man speak Manx as a first language, there has been a steady increase in the number of speakers since the death of Ned Maddrell in 1974. He was considered to be the last speaker to grow up in a Manx-speaking community environment. Despite this, the language has never fallen completely out of use, with a minority having some knowledge of it as a heritage language, and it is still an important part of the island's culture and cultural heritage.
Manx is often cited as a good example of language revitalization efforts; in 2015, around 1,800 people had varying levels of second-language conversational ability. Since the late 20th century, Manx has become more visible on the island, with increased signage, radio broadcasts and a Manx-medium primary school. The revival of Manx has been made easier because the language was well recorded, e.g. the Bible and the Book of Common Prayer had been translated into Manx, and audio recordings had been made of native speakers.
Names
[edit]In Manx
[edit]The endonym of the language is Template:Wikt-lang/Template:Wikt-lang, which shares the same etymology as the word "Gaelic", as do the endonyms of its sister languages: Irish (Template:Lang; Template:Lang, Template:Lang and Template:Lang) and Scottish Gaelic (Template:Lang). Manx frequently uses the forms Template:Lang/Template:Lang (with definite article), as do Irish (Template:Lang) and Scottish Gaelic (Template:Lang).
To distinguish it from the two other forms of Gaelic, the phrases Template:Lang "Gaelic of Mann" and Template:Lang "Manx Gaelic" are also used. In addition, the nickname Template:Lang "the mother tongue", lit. "the mother's tongue" is occasionally used.
In English
[edit]The language is usually referred to in English as "Manx". The term "Manx Gaelic" is often used, for example when discussing the relationship between the three Goidelic languages (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx) or to avoid confusion with Manx English, the form of English spoken on the island. A feature of Manx English deriving from Gaelic is the use of the definite article, e.g. "the Manx", "the Gaelic", in ways not generally seen in standard English.<ref name="Moore">Template:Cite book</ref>
The word "Manx", often spelled historically as "Manks" (particularly by natives of the island), means "Mannish" and originates from Old Norse Template:Lang.<ref>Template:Citation</ref> The Isle of Man is named after the Irish god Manannán mac Lir, thus Template:Lang ("Mannanán's Island", Template:Langx "Mannanán's Island").<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
History
[edit]
Manx is a Goidelic language, closely related to Irish and Scottish Gaelic. On the whole it is partially mutually intelligible with these, and native speakers of one find it easy to gain passive, and even spoken, competency in the other two.
It has been suggested that a little-documented Brythonic language (i.e. related to modern Welsh, Cornish and Breton) may have been spoken on the Isle of Man before the arrival of Christian missionaries from Ireland in the early Middle Ages.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>Template:Failed verification However, there is little surviving evidence about the language spoken on the island at that time.
The basis of the modern Manx language is Primitive Irish (like modern Irish and Scottish Gaelic). The island either lends its name to or takes its name from Manannán, the Brythonic and Gaelic sea god who is said in myth to have once ruled the island. Primitive Irish is first attested in Ogham inscriptions from the 4th century AD. These writings have been found throughout Ireland and the west coast of Great Britain. Primitive Irish transitioned into Old Irish through the 5th century. Old Irish, dating from the 6th century, used the Latin script and is attested primarily in marginalia to Latin manuscripts, but there are no extant examples from the Isle of Man.
Latin was used for ecclesiastical records from the establishment of Christianity in the Isle of Man in the 5th century AD. Many words concerning religion, writing and record keeping entered Manx at this time.
The Isle of Man was conquered by Norse Vikings in the 9th century. Although there is some evidence in the form of runic inscriptions that Norse was used by some of these settlers, the Vikings who settled around the Irish Sea and West Coast of Scotland soon became Gaelic speaking Norse–Gaels. During the 9th century AD, the Gaelic of the inhabitants of the Isle of Man, like those of Scotland and the North of Ireland, may have been significantly influenced by Norse speakers. While Norse had very little impact on the Manx language overall,<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">Template:Cite book</ref> a small number of modern place names on the Isle of Man are Norse in origin, e.g. Laxey (Laksaa) and Ramsey (Rhumsaa). Other Norse legacies in Manx include loanwords and personal names.
By the 10th century, it is supposed that Middle Irish had emerged and was spoken throughout Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man.
The island came under Scottish rule in 1266, and alternated between Scottish and English rule until finally becoming the feudal possession of the Stanley family in 1405. It is likely that until that point, except for scholarly knowledge of Latin and courtly use of Anglo-Norman, Manx was the only language spoken on the island. Since the establishment of the Stanleys on the Isle of Man, first Anglo-Norman and later the English language have been the chief external factors in the development of Manx, until the 20th century, when Manx speakers became able to access Irish and Scottish Gaelic media.
17th to 19th centuries
[edit]Manx had diverged considerably from the Gaelic languages of Scotland and Ireland between 1400 and 1900. The 17th century Plantation of Ulster, the decline of Irish in Leinster and the extinction of Galloway Gaelic led to the geographic isolation of Manx from other dialects of Gaelic. The development of a separate orthography also led Manx to diverge from Irish and Scottish Gaelic.<ref name=":1" />
In the 17th century, some university students left the Isle of Man to attend school in England. At the same time, teaching in English was required in schools founded by governor Isaac Barrow. Barrow also promoted the use of English in churches; he considered that it was a superior language for reading the Bible; however, because the majority of ministers were monolingual Manx speakers, his views had little practical impact.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2"/>
Thomas Wilson began his tenure as Bishop of Mann in 1698 and was succeeded by Mark Hildesley. Both men held positive views of Manx; Wilson was the first person to publish a book in Manx, a translation of The Principles and Duties of Christianity (Template:Lang), and Hildesley successfully promoted the use of Manx as the language of instruction in schools. The New Testament was first published in Manx in 1767. In the late 18th century, nearly every school was teaching in English. This decline continued into the 19th century, as English gradually became the primary language spoken on the Isle of Man.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2"/>
In 1848, J.G. Cumming wrote, "there are ... few persons (perhaps none of the young) who speak no English." Henry Jenner estimated in 1874 that about 30% of the population habitually spoke Manx (12,340 out of a population of 41,084). According to official census figures, 9.1% of the population claimed to speak Manx in 1901; in 1921 the percentage was only 1.1%.<ref name=":3">Gunther 1990, 59–60</ref> Since the language was used by so few people, it had low linguistic "prestige", and parents tended not to teach Manx to their children, thinking it would be useless to them compared with English.<ref name=":2"/>
According to Brian Stowell, "In the 1860s there were thousands of Manx people who couldn't speak English, but barely a century later it was considered to be so backwards to speak the language that there were stories of Manx speakers getting stones thrown at them in the towns."<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Revival
[edit]Following the decline in the use of Manx during the 19th century, Template:Lang (The Manx Language Society) was founded in 1899. By the middle of the 20th century, only a few elderly native speakers remained (the last of them, Ned Maddrell, died on 27 December 1974), but by then a scholarly revival had begun and a few people had started teaching it in schools. The Manx Language Unit was formed in 1992, consisting of three members and headed by Manx Language Officer Brian Stowell, a language activist and fluent speaker, "which was put in charge of all aspects of Manx language teaching and accreditation in schools."<ref name=":1">Ager, Simon. "A Study of Language Death and Revival with a Particular Focus on Manx Gaelic." Master's Dissertation University of Wales, Lampeter, 2009. PDF.</ref> This led to an increased interest in studying the Manx language and encouraged a renewed sense of ethnic identity. The revival of Manx was aided by the recording work done in the 20th century by researchers. Most notably, the Irish Folklore Commission was sent in with recording equipment in 1948 by Éamon de Valera. Also important in preserving the Manx language was work conducted by the late Brian Stowell, who is considered personally responsible for the current revival of the Manx language.<ref name=graun /> The Manx Language Strategy was released in 2017, outlining a five-year plan for the language's continued revitalisation.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Culture Vannin employs a Manx Language Development Officer (Template:Langx) to encourage and facilitate the use of the language.
In 2009, UNESCO's Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger declared Manx an extinct language, despite the presence of hundreds of speakers on the Isle of Man.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Historian and linguist Jennifer Kewley Draskau reacted to this declaration, saying that saying that "Unesco ought to know better than to declare Manx a dead language. There are hundreds of speakers of Manx and while people are able to have productive conversations in the language then it is very much alive and well."<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Since then, UNESCO's classification of the language has changed to "critically endangered".<ref name=graun>Template:Cite news</ref>
In the 2011 census, 1,823 out of 80,398 Isle of Man residents, or 2.27% of the population, claimed to have knowledge of Manx,<ref name=Gov.im>Template:Cite web</ref> an increase of 134 people from the 2001 census.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> These individuals were spread roughly uniformly over the island: in Douglas 566 people professed an ability to speak, read or write Manx; 179 in Peel, 146 in Onchan, and 149 in Ramsey.<ref name="Gov.im"/>
Traditional Manx given names have experienced a marked resurgence on the island, especially Template:Lang and Template:Lang (Mary), Template:Lang (William), Template:Lang (from the Manx king Godred Crovan of Norse origin), Template:Lang (Bridget), Template:Lang (Alice), Template:Lang (Jack), Template:Lang (John), Template:Lang (Joan), Template:Lang (Fionnuala), Template:Lang (Patrick) and Template:Lang (from the Norse goddess) remain popular.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Estimated number of speakers by year
[edit]| Year | Manx speakers | Isle of Man population |
Template:Abbr | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total | Of Manx population | |||
| 1874 | 16,200 | 30% | 54,000 (1871) | <ref name=":3" /> |
| 1901 | 4,419 | 8.07% | 54,752 | <ref name=":0">Template:Cite web</ref> |
| 1911 | 2,382 | 4.58% | 52,016 | <ref name=":0" /> |
| 1921 | 915 | 1.52% | 60,284 | <ref name=":0" /> |
| 1931 | 529 | 1.07% | 49,308 | <ref name=":0" /> |
| 1951 | 355 | 0.64% | 50,253 | <ref name=":0" /> |
| 1961 | 165 | 0.34% | 48,133 | <ref name=":3" /> |
| 1971 | 284 | 0.52% | 54,481 | <ref>Template:Cite book</ref> |
| 1974 | Last native speaker dies | <ref name=":3" /> | ||
| 1991 | 643 | 0.90% | 71,267 | <ref>Template:Cite book</ref> |
| 2001 | 1,500 | 1.95% | 78,266 | <ref>Template:Cite web</ref> |
| 2011 | 1,650 | 1.97% | 84,497 | <ref>Template:Cite web</ref> |
| 2015 | 1,800 | 2% | 88,000 | <ref name="graun" /> |
| 2021 | 2,223 | 2.64% | 84,069 | <ref>Template:Cite web</ref> |
Status
[edit]Template:More citations needed Manx is not officially recognised by any national or regional government, although its contribution to Manx culture and tradition is acknowledged by some governmental and non-governmental bodies.
The Standing Orders of the House of Keys provide that: "The proceedings of the House shall be in English; but if a Member at any point pronounces a customary term or sentence in Manx Gaelic or any other language, the Speaker may call upon the Member for a translation."<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> An example was at the sitting on 12 February 2019, when an MHK used the expression Template:Lang,<ref>http://www.tynwald.org.im/business/hansard/20002020/k190212.pdf House of Keys Hansard</ref> stated to mean "nonsense".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>However this word appears to have been adopted into Manx English, see [1] Braaid Eisteddfod: A poem by Annie Kissack (at 20 seconds)</ref>
Manx is used in the annual Tynwald ceremony and Manx words are used in official Tynwald publications.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
For the purpose of strengthening its contribution to local culture and community, Manx is recognised under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages and in the framework of the British-Irish Council.
The Isle of Man comprised the one site for the Manx language in the Atlas Linguarum Europae, a project that compared dialects and languages across all countries in Europe.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Manx is taught as a second language at all of the island's primary and secondary schools. The lessons are optional and instruction is provided by the Department of Education's Manx Language Team which teach up to A Level standard.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
The Bunscoill Ghaelgagh, a primary school at St John's, has 67 children, as of September 2016, who receive nearly all of their education through the medium of the language. Children who have attended the school have the opportunity to receive some of their secondary education through the language at Queen Elizabeth II High School in Peel.
The playgroup organisation Mooinjer Veggey, which operates the Template:Lang, runs a series of preschool groups that introduce the language.
Bilingual road, street, village and town boundary signs are common throughout the Isle of Man. All other road signs are in English only.
Business signage in Manx is gradually being introduced but is not mandated by law; however, the 1985 Tynwald Report on the use of Manx states that signage should be bilingual except where a Manx phrase is the norm.
Classification and dialects
[edit]Template:IPA notice Manx is one of the three daughter languages of Old Irish (via Middle Irish), the other two being Irish and Scottish Gaelic. It shares a number of developments in phonology, vocabulary and grammar with its sisters (in some cases only with certain dialects) and shows a number of unique changes. There are two attested historical dialects of Manx, Northern Manx and Southern Manx.<ref>Broderick 1984–86, 1:xxvii–xxviii, 160</ref> A third dialect may have existed in-between, around DouglasTemplate:Citation needed.
Similarities to and differences from Irish and Scottish Gaelic
[edit]Template:Main Manx and Scottish Gaelic share the partial loss of phonemic palatalisation of labial consonants; while in Irish velarised consonants Template:IPA contrast phonemically with palatalised Template:IPA.<ref>Jackson 1955, 66. Jackson claims that northern Irish has also lost the contrast between velarised and palatalised labials, but this seems to be a mistake on his part, as both Mayo Irish and Ulster Irish are consistently described as having the contrast (cf. Mhac an Fhailigh 1968, 27; Hughes 1994, 621; see also Ó Baoill 1978, 87)</ref> A consequence of this phonemic merger is that Middle Irish unstressed word-final Template:IPA (-Template:Vr in Irish and Gaelic) has merged with Template:IPA (-Template:Vr in Irish and Gaelic), in Manx; both have become Template:IPA (-Template:Vr), e.g. Template:Lang "to stand" (Irish Template:Lang), Template:Lang "religion" (Irish Template:Lang), Template:Lang "fainting" (Early Modern Irish Template:Lang, lit. in clouds), and Template:Lang "on you (pl.)" (Irish Template:Lang).<ref>O'Rahilly 1932, 77–82; Broderick 1984–86, 2:152</ref>
Medial and final *Template:Vr have generally become Template:IPA and Template:IPA in Manx, thus Template:Lang 'you pl.' (Irish and Scottish Gaelic Template:Lang; Lewis Gaelic Template:Lang), Template:Lang "bitter" (Scottish Template:Lang Template:IPA, Irish Template:Lang (Northern/Western) Template:IPA, (Southern) Template:IPA), Template:Lang "river" (Scottish Template:Lang Template:IPA, Irish Template:Lang (Northern) Template:IPA) (Western) Template:IPA (Southern) Template:IPA, Template:Lang "hand" (Scottish Template:Lang Template:IPA, Irish Template:Lang (Northern) Template:IPA, (Western) Template:IPA, (Southern) Template:IPA), Template:Lang "summer" (Scottish Template:Lang Template:IPA, Irish Template:Lang (Northern) Template:IPA, (Western/Southern) Template:IPA). Rare retentions of the older pronunciation of Template:Vr include Template:Lang, Template:Lang "Dublin", Middle Irish Duibhlind Template:IPA.
Moreover, similarly to Munster Irish, historical Template:Vr (Template:IPA) and Template:Vr (nasalised Template:IPA) tend to be lost word medially or finally in Manx, either with compensatory lengthening or vocalisation as Template:IPA resulting in diphthongisation with the preceding vowel, e.g. Template:Lang "winter" Template:IPA (Irish Template:Lang (Southern) Template:IPA) and Template:Lang "mountains" Template:IPA (Irish Template:Lang (Southern) Template:IPA).<ref>O'Rahilly 1932, 24; Broderick 1984–86 3:80–83; Ó Sé 2000:15, 120</ref> Another similarity to Munster Irish is the development of the Old Irish diphthongs Template:IPA before velarised consonants (Template:Vr in Irish and Scottish Gaelic) to Template:IPA, as in Template:Lang "carpenter" Template:IPA and Template:Lang "narrow" Template:IPA (Irish and Scottish Template:Lang and Template:Lang).<ref>Jackson 1955, 47–50; Ó Cuív 1944, 38, 91</ref>
Like Connacht and Ulster Irish (cf. Irish phonology) and most dialects of Scottish Gaelic, Manx has changed the historical consonant clusters Template:IPA to Template:IPA, e.g. Middle Irish Template:Lang "mockery" and Template:Lang "women" have become Template:Lang and Template:Lang respectively in Manx.<ref>O'Rahilly 1932, 22</ref> The affrication of slender "Template:Vr" sounds is also common to Manx, Northern Irish, and Scottish Gaelic.<ref>O'Rahilly 1932, 203</ref>
Unstressed Middle Irish word-final syllable Template:IPA (-Template:Vr) has developed to Template:IPA (-Template:Vr) in Manx, as in Template:Lang "buy" (cf. Irish Template:Lang) and Template:Lang "apparatus" (cf. Gaelic Template:Lang),<ref>O'Rahilly 1932, 57</ref> like Northern/Western Irish and Southern dialects Scottish Gaelic (e.g. Arran, Kintyre).
Another property Manx shares with Ulster Irish and some dialects of Scottish Gaelic is that Template:IPA rather than Template:IPA appears in unstressed syllables before Template:IPA (Template:Vr in Manx), e.g. Template:Lang "straight" Template:IPA (Irish Template:Lang), Template:Lang "to remember" Template:IPA (Scottish Gaelic Template:Lang).<ref>O'Rahilly 1932, 110; Jackson 1955, 55</ref>
Like Southern and Western Irish and Northern Scottish Gaelic, but unlike the geographically closer varieties of Ulster Irish and Arran and Kintyre Gaelic, Manx shows vowel lengthening or diphthongisation before the Old Irish fortis and lenis sonorants, e.g. Template:Lang "children" Template:IPA, Template:Lang "brown" Template:IPA and Template:Lang "butter" Template:IPA correspond to Irish/Scottish Gaelic Template:Lang, Template:Lang, and Template:Lang respectively, which have long vowels or diphthongs in Western and Southern Irish and in the Scottish Gaelic dialects of the Outer Hebrides and Skye, thus Western Irish Template:IPA, Southern Irish/Northern Scottish Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA), but short vowels and 'long' consonants in Ulster Irish, Arran, and Kintyre, Template:IPA, Template:IPA and Template:IPA.<ref>O'Rahilly 1932, 51; Jackson 1955, 57–58; Holmer 1957, 87, 88, 106; 1962, 41</ref>
Another similarity with Southern Irish is the treatment of Middle Irish word-final unstressed Template:IPA (-Template:Vr in Irish and Scottish Gaelic). In nouns (including verbal nouns), this became Template:IPA in Manx, as it did in Southern Irish, e.g. Template:Lang "war" Template:IPA, Template:Lang "to praise" Template:IPA (cf. Irish Template:Lang and Template:Lang (Southern Irish) Template:IPA and Template:IPA).<ref>O'Rahilly 1932, 68; Broderick 1984–86, 2:56, 308</ref> In finite verb forms before full nouns (as opposed to pronouns) Template:IPA became Template:IPA in Manx, as in Southern Irish, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA "would praise" (cf. Irish Template:Lang (Southern Irish) Template:IPA).<ref>O'Rahilly 1932, 75</ref>
Dialects
[edit]
Linguistic analysis of the last few dozen native speakers reveals a number of dialectal differences between the North and the South of the island. Northern Manx (Template:Langx) was spoken from Maughold in the northeast to Peel on the west coast. Southern Manx was spoken in the sheading of Rushen. It is possible that written Manx represents a 'midlands' dialect of Douglas and surrounding areas.
In Southern Manx, older Template:Vr, and in some cases Template:Vr, became Template:IPA. In Northern Manx the same happened, but Template:Vr sometimes remained Template:IPA as well, e.g. Template:Lang "day" (cf. Irish Template:Lang) was Template:IPA in the South but Template:IPA or Template:IPA in the North. Old Template:Vr is always Template:IPA in both dialects, e.g. Template:Lang "young" (cf. Irish Template:Lang) is Template:IPA in both dialects.<ref>Broderick 1984–8,6 1:160</ref> Template:Vr and lengthened Template:Vr before Template:Vr became Template:IPA, as in paayrt '"part" Template:IPA, ard "high" Template:IPA, jiarg "red" Template:IPA, argid "money, silver" Template:IPA and aarey "gold gen." Template:IPA.
In Northern Manx, older Template:Vr before Template:Vr in the same syllable is diphthongised, while in Southern Manx it is lengthened but remains a monophthong, e.g. Template:Lang "head" (cf. Irish Template:Lang) is Template:IPA in the North but Template:IPA in the South.<ref>Broderick 1984–86, 1:161</ref>
Words with Template:Vr, and in some cases Template:Vr, in Irish and Scottish are spelled with Template:Vr in Manx. In Northern Manx, this sound was Template:IPA, while in Southern Manx it was Template:IPA, Template:IPA, or Template:IPA, e.g. Template:Lang "wind" (cf. Irish Template:Lang) is Template:IPA in the north and Template:IPA in the South, while Template:Lang "coal" (cf. Irish Template:Lang) is Template:IPA in the North and Template:IPA, Template:IPA, or Template:IPA in the South.<ref>Broderick 1984–86, 1:161–62</ref>
In both the North and the South, there is a tendency to insert a short Template:IPA before a word-final Template:IPA in monosyllabic words, as in Template:IPA for Template:Lang "whole" and Template:IPA for Template:Lang "woman". This is known as pre-occlusion. In Southern Manx, however, there is also pre-occlusion of Template:IPA before Template:IPA and of Template:IPA before Template:IPA, as in Template:IPA for Template:Lang "walking" and Template:IPA for Template:Lang "ship". These forms are generally pronounced without pre-occlusion in the North. Pre-occlusion of Template:IPA before Template:IPA, on the other hand, is more common in the North, as in Template:Lang "heavy", which is Template:IPA in the North but Template:IPA in the South.<ref>Broderick 1984–86, 1:162–63</ref> This feature is also found in Cornish.
Southern Manx tended to lose word-initial Template:IPA before Template:IPA, which was usually preserved in the North, e.g. Template:Lang "glen" and Template:Lang "knee" are and Template:IPA and Template:IPA in the South but Template:IPA and Template:IPA in the North.<ref>Broderick 1984–86, 1:164–65</ref>
In modern times, the small size of the island and the improvement in communications precludes any regional dialect variations. Template:Clear
Phonology
[edit]Stress
[edit]Stress generally falls on the first syllable of a word in Manx, but in many cases, stress is attracted to a long vowel in the second syllable.<ref>Broderick 1993, 236</ref> Examples include:
- Template:Lang Template:IPA "sprite"
- Template:Lang Template:IPA "busy"
- Template:Lang Template:IPA "royal"
- Template:Lang Template:IPA "advantage"
Consonants
[edit]The consonant phoneme inventory of Manx:<ref>Lewin 2020; Lewin (Forthcoming)</ref>
The voiceless plosives are aspirated. The dental, postalveolar and palato-velar plosives Template:IPA affricate to Template:IPA in many contexts.
Manx has an optional process of lenition of plosives between vowels, where voiced plosives and voiceless fricatives become voiced fricatives and voiceless plosives become either voiced plosives or voiced fricatives. This process introduces the allophones Template:IPA. The voiced fricative Template:IPA may be further lenited to Template:IPA, and Template:IPA may disappear altogether. Examples include:<ref>Broderick 1984–86, 3:3–13; Thomson 1992, 129</ref>
Voiceless plosive to voiced plosive:
- Template:IPA > Template:IPA: Template:Lang Template:IPA "flag, rag"
- Template:IPA > Template:IPA: Template:Lang Template:IPA "sin"
Voiceless plosive to voiced fricative:
- Template:IPA > Template:IPA: Template:Lang Template:IPA "cup"
- Template:IPA > Template:IPA: Template:Lang Template:IPA "boat"
- Template:IPA > Template:IPA: Template:Lang Template:IPA "tooth"
Voiced plosive to voiced fricative:
- Template:IPA > Template:IPA: Template:Lang Template:IPA "horse"
- Template:IPA > Template:IPA: Template:Lang Template:IPA "face"
- Template:IPA > Template:IPA: Template:Lang Template:IPA "prayer"
- Template:IPA > Template:IPA > Template:IPA: Template:Lang Template:IPA "stick"
- Template:IPA > Template:IPA: Template:Lang Template:IPA "born"
Voiceless fricative to voiced fricative:
- Template:IPA > Template:IPA or Template:IPA: Template:Lang Template:IPA "married"
- Template:IPA > Template:IPA: Template:Lang Template:IPA "stand"
- Template:IPA > Template:IPA: Template:Lang Template:IPA "easy"
- Template:IPA > Template:IPA > Template:IPA: Template:Lang Template:IPA "beginning"
- Template:IPA > Template:IPA: Template:Lang Template:IPA "live"
- Template:IPA > Template:IPA > ∅: Template:Lang Template:IPA "past"
Another optional process is pre-occlusion, the insertion of a very short plosive before a sonorant consonant. In Manx, this applies to stressed monosyllabic words. The inserted consonant is homorganic with the following sonorant, which means it has the same place of articulation. Long vowels are often shortened before pre-occluded sounds. Examples include:<ref>Broderick 1984–86, 3:28–34; 1993, 236</ref>
- Template:IPA > Template:IPA: Template:Lang Template:IPA > Template:IPA "heavy"
- Template:IPA > Template:IPA: Template:Lang Template:IPA > Template:IPA "head"
- Template:IPA > Template:IPA: Template:Lang Template:IPA > Template:IPA "birds"
- Template:IPA > Template:IPA: Template:Lang Template:IPA > Template:IPA "ship"
- Template:IPA > Template:IPA: Template:Lang Template:IPA > Template:IPA "walking"
The trill Template:IPA is realised as a one- or two-contact flap Template:IPA at the beginning of syllable, and as a stronger trill Template:IPA when preceded by another consonant in the same syllable. At the end of a syllable, Template:IPA can be pronounced either as a strong trill Template:IPA or, more frequently, as a weak fricative Template:IPA, which may vocalise to a nonsyllabic Template:IPA or disappear altogether.<ref>Broderick 1984–86; 3:17–18</ref> This vocalisation may be due to the influence of Manx English, which is non-rhotic.<ref>Jackson 1955, 118; Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language, 1998, Isle of Man, retrieved 28 September 2008</ref> Examples of the pronunciation of Template:IPA include:
- Template:Lang "snare" Template:IPA
- Template:Lang "bread" Template:IPA
- Template:Lang "big" Template:IPA
Vowels
[edit]The vowel phoneme inventory of Manx:<ref>Broderick 1993, 230–33</ref>
The status of Template:IPA and Template:IPA as separate phonemes is debatable, but is suggested by the allophony of certain words such as Template:Lang "is", Template:Lang "women", and so on. An alternative analysis is that Manx has the following system, where the vowels Template:IPA and Template:IPA have allophones ranging from Template:IPA through Template:IPA to Template:IPA. As with Irish and Scottish Gaelic, there is a large amount of vowel allophony, such as that of Template:IPA. This depends mainly on the 'broad' and 'slender' status of the neighbouring consonants:
| Phoneme | "Slender" | "Broad" |
|---|---|---|
| Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA |
| Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA |
| Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA |
| Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA |
| Template:IPA (Middle Gaelic) | Template:IPA | Template:IPA |
| Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA |
| Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA |
| Template:IPA (Middle Gaelic) | Template:IPA | Template:IPA |
When stressed, Template:IPA is realised as Template:IPA.<ref>Broderick 1993, 232–33</ref>
Manx has a relatively large number of diphthongs, all of them falling:
| Second element | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | ||
| First element |
Close | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | |
| Mid | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | ||
| Open | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | ||
Grammar
[edit]Syntax
[edit]Like most Insular Celtic languages, Manx is a VSO language.<ref>Broderick 1993, 276</ref> However, most finite verbs are formed periphrastically, using an auxiliary verb in conjunction with the verbal noun. In this case, only the auxiliary verb precedes the subject, while the verbal noun comes after the subject. The auxiliary verb may be a modal verb rather than a form of Template:Lang ("be") or Template:Lang ("do"). Particles like the negative Template:Lang ("not") precede the inflected verb. Examples:
When the auxiliary verb is a form of Template:Lang ("do"), the direct object precedes the verbal noun and is connected to it with the particle Template:Lang:
As in Irish (cf. Irish syntax#The forms meaning "to be"), there are two ways of expressing "to be" in Manx: with the substantive verb Template:Lang, and with the copula. The substantive verb is used when the predicate is an adjective, adverb, or prepositional phrase.<ref>Broderick 1993, 276–77</ref> Examples:
Where the predicate is a noun, it must be converted to a prepositional phrase headed by the preposition Template:Lang ("in") + possessive pronoun (agreeing with the subject) in order for the substantive verb to be grammatical:
Otherwise, the copula is used when the predicate is a noun. The copula itself takes the form Template:Lang or Template:Lang in the present tense, but it is often omitted in affirmative statements:
In questions and negative sentences, the present tense of the copula is Template:Lang:
Morphology
[edit]Initial consonant mutations
[edit]Like all modern Celtic languages, Manx shows initial consonant mutations, which are processes by which the initial consonant of a word is altered according to its morphological and/or syntactic environment.<ref>Broderick 1984–86, 1:7–21; 1993, 236–39; Thomson 1992, 132–35</ref> Manx has two mutations: lenition and eclipsis, found on nouns and verbs in a variety of environments; adjectives can undergo lenition but not eclipsis. In the late spoken language of the 20th century the system was breaking down, with speakers frequently failing to use mutation in environments where it was called for, and occasionally using it in environments where it was not called for.
<references group="*" /> In the corpus of the late spoken language, there is also one example of the eclipsis (nasalisation) of Template:IPA: the sentence Template:Lang ("I have found the lamb"), where Template:Angle bracket is pronounced Template:IPA. However, probably this was a mis-transcription; the verbal noun in this case is not Template:Lang "get, fetch", but rather Template:Lang "find".<ref>(Broderick 1984–86 2:190, 3:66).</ref>
Nouns
[edit]Manx nouns display gender, number and sometimes case, for instance, for feminine Template:Lang "foot".
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang |
| Vocative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang |
| Genitive | Template:Lang | Template:Lang |
Pronouns
[edit]In addition to regular forms, personal pronouns also have emphatic versions.
| Regular | Emphatic | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | 1st person | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | |
| 2nd person | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | ||
| 3rd person |
masculine | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | |
| feminine | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | ||
| Plural | 1st person | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | |
| 2nd person | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | ||
| 3rd person | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | ||
Verbs
[edit]Manx verbs generally form their finite forms by means of periphrasis: inflected forms of the auxiliary verbs Template:Lang "to be" or Template:Lang "to do" are combined with the verbal noun of the main verb. Only the future, conditional, preterite, and imperative can be formed directly by inflecting the main verb, but even in these tenses, the periphrastic formation is more common in Late Spoken Manx.<ref>Broderick 1984–86, 75–82; 1993, 250, 271; Thomson 1992, 122</ref>
| Tense | Periphrastic form (literal translation) |
Inflected form | Gloss |
|---|---|---|---|
| Present | Template:Lang (I am throwing) |
– | I throw |
| Imperfect | Template:Lang (I was throwing) |
– | I was throwing |
| Perfect | Template:Lang (I am after throwing)<ref name="er">The particle Template:Lang is identical in form to the preposition Template:Lang "on"; however, it is etymologically distinct, coming from Old Irish Template:Lang "after" (Williams 1994, 725).</ref> |
– | I have thrown |
| Pluperfect | Template:Lang (I was after throwing)<ref name="er" /> |
– | I had thrown |
| Preterite | Template:Lang (I did throwing) |
Template:Lang | I threw |
| Future | Template:Lang (I will do throwing) |
Template:Lang | I will throw |
| Conditional | Template:Lang (I would do throwing) |
Template:Lang | I would throw |
| Imperative | Template:Lang (Do throwing!) |
Template:Lang | Throw! |
| Past participle | – | Template:Lang | thrown |
The fully inflected forms of the regular verb Template:Lang "to throw" are as follows. In addition to the forms below, a past participle may be formed using Template:Lang: Template:Lang "thrown".
| Tense | Independent | Dependent | Relative |
|---|---|---|---|
| Preterite | Template:Lang | (same as independent) | |
| Future | Template:Lang[1], Template:Lang[2], Template:Lang[3] | Template:Lang | Template:Lang |
| Conditional | Template:Lang[1], Template:Lang[3] | Template:Lang[1], Template:Lang[3] | |
| Imperative | Template:Lang[4], Template:Lang[5] | (same as independent) |
1.^ First person singular, making the use of a following subject pronoun redundant
2.^ First person plural, making the use of a following subject pronoun redundant
3.^ Used with all other persons, meaning an accompanying subject must be stated, e.g. Template:Lang "he will throw", Template:Lang "they will throw"
4.^ Singular subject.
5.^ Plural subject.
There are a few peculiarities when a verb begins with a vowel, i.e. the addition of Template:Lang in the preterite and Template:Lang in the future and conditional dependent. Below is the conjugation of Template:Lang "to grow".
There is a small number of irregular verbs, the most irregular of all being Template:Lang "be".
| Form | Independent | Dependent | Relative |
|---|---|---|---|
| Present | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | – |
| Preterite | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | – |
| Future | Template:Lang | (same as independent) | vees |
| Conditional | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | – |
| Imperative | Template:Lang | (same as independent) | – |
Prepositions
[edit]Like the other Insular Celtic languages, Manx has inflected prepositions, contractions of a preposition with a pronominal direct object, as the following common prepositions show. Note the sometimes identical form of the uninflected preposition and its third person singular masculine inflected form.
| 1st person | 2nd person | 3rd person | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | plural | singular | plural | singular | plural | ||
| masculine | feminine | ||||||
| Template:Lang "in" | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang "to" | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang "at" | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang "on" | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang "with" | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang "from" | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang |
Numbers
[edit]Numbers are traditionally vigesimal in Manx, e.g. Template:Lang "twenty", Template:Lang "forty" ("two twenties"), Template:Lang "sixty" ("three twenties").
*In the northern dialects of Irish /dʲ tʲ/ may be affricated to Template:IPA or Template:IPA.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Orthography
[edit]Manx orthography is based on Elizabethan English, and to a lesser extent Middle Welsh, developed by people who had an education in English (and Welsh until the 16th century).<ref>Template:Harvcolnb footnote in Spoken Sound as a Rule for Orthography, credited to W. Mackenzie.</ref> The result is an inconsistent and only partially phonemic spelling system, similar to English orthography and completely incomprehensible to readers of Irish and Scottish Gaelic. This is because both Irish and Scottish Gaelic use spelling systems derived from Classical Gaelic, the common literary language of Man, Ireland, and Scotland until the Bardic schools closed down in the 17th century, which makes them very etymological. Both Irish and Scottish Gaelic use only 18 letters to represent around 50 phonemes. While Manx uses 24 letters (the ISO basic Latin alphabet, excluding Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr), covering a similar range of phonemes, all three make use of many digraphs and trigraphs. In 1932, Celticist T. F. O'Rahilly expressed the opinion that Manx orthography is inadequate, as it is neither traditional nor phonetic. Therefore, if a form of Classical Gaelic orthography adapted to Manx had survived or if one based on the reforms of Theobald Stapleton were to be developed and introduced, the very close relationship between Manx, Irish, and Scottish Gaelic would be obvious to readers at first sight and Manx would be much easier for other Gaels to read and understand.Template:Sfn
There is no evidence, however, of Gaelic type ever having been used on the island.
Spelling to sound correspondences
[edit]Diacritics
[edit]Manx uses only one diacritic, a cedilla, which is (optionally) used to differentiate between the two phonemes represented by Template:Angbr:
- Template:Lang (Template:IPA) "lord", is pronounced with Template:IPAslink, as in the English "church"
- Template:Lang (Template:IPA) "nor" or "neither", is pronounced with Template:IPAslink, as in Scottish English "loch" (Template:IPA) or Irish English "lough" (Template:IPA), a sound commonly represented by Template:Angbr at the ends of words in Manx (and Irish English).
Example
[edit]The following examples are taken from Broderick 1984–86, 1:178–79 and 1:350–53. The first example is from a speaker of Northern Manx, the second from Ned Maddrell, a speaker of Southern Manx.
| Orthography (+ phonetic transcription) | Gloss |
|---|---|
| Template:Interlinear | They used to think if a horse was looking tired and weary in the morning then it had been with the fairies all night and they would bring the priest to put his blessing on it. |
| Template:Interlinear | There was a woman here last week and she wanted me to teach her to say the Lord's Prayer. She said that she used to say it when she was a little girl, but she has forgotten it all, and she wanted to learn it again to say it at a class or something. And I said I would do my best to help her and she came here to hear it, and do you want to hear me say it? |
Vocabulary
[edit]Manx vocabulary is predominantly of Goidelic origin, derived from Old Irish and has cognates in Irish and Scottish Gaelic. However, Manx itself, as well as the languages from which it is derived, borrowed words from other languages, especially Latin, Old Norse, French (particularly Anglo-Norman), and English (both Middle English and Modern English).Template:Sfn
The following table shows a selection of nouns from the Swadesh list and indicates their pronunciations and etymologies.
| Manx | IPA<ref name="Brodvol2">Broderick 1984–86, vol. 2</ref> | English | Etymology<ref>Macbain 1911; Dictionary of the Irish Language; Broderick 1984–86, vol. 2</ref> |
|---|---|---|---|
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | liver | Goidelic; from Mid.Ir. Template:Lang < O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | sky | Latin; from O.Ir. Template:Lang < L. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | fire | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang "very bright"; cf. Ir., Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | snake | Apparently "highly poisonous" (cf. Template:Lang "high", Template:Lang "poison") |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | river | Goidelic; from the M.Ir. dative form abainn of Template:Lang < O.Ir. abaind Template:Lang; cf. Ir. abha/abhainn, dative abhainn, Sc.G. Template:Lang (literary nominative abha). |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | father | Goidelic; from M.Ir. athair, O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir., Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | mouth | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang/Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | worm | Latin; from M.Ir. Template:Lang, Template:Lang < O.Ir. Template:Lang < L. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | woman | Goidelic; from M.Ir and O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir., Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | tree | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | flower | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang, Ir. bláth, Sc.G. blàth |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | year | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, dat. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | cloud | English/French; shortened from Template:Lang "pillar of cloud" (cf. Sc.G. Template:Lang); Template:Lang originally meant "pillar" or "battlement" < E. battle < Fr. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | belly, bag | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang, Ir., Sc.G bolg |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | foot | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang, cf. Sc.G. Template:Lang, Ir.dialect cas, Ir. cos |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | tongue | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir., Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | stone | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Sc.G. Template:Lang, Ir. cloch |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | ear | Goidelic; from O.Ir. dative Template:Lang "hearing"; cf. Ir., Sc.G. Template:Lang, dative Template:Lang, Ir. dialect cluais |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | guts | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang, derived from caol "thin, slender", -án nominaliser |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | skin | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir., Sc.G. Template:Lang, dialect croiceann |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | bone | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, dative Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | heart | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | person | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang, cf. Ir., Sc.G Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | back | Goidelic; from O.Ir. dative Template:Lang, nominative dromm; cf. Ir. drom, dialect Template:Lang, dative droim, Sc.G. drom, dialect Template:Lang, dative druim |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | leaf | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | horn | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir., Sc.G. Template:Lang, Ir. dialect aidhearc |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | moon | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. archaic Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | fish | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Ul. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | name | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir., Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | sea | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | grass | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang, Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | tail | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang+ -án nominaliser (masculine diminutive); cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | feather | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang "wing", Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | tooth | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir., Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | meat | Goidelic; from O.Ir. dative Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | man | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir., Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | rain | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang "rainwater; a drenching", related to fliuch "wet" |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | hair | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang, Ir.folt, Sc.G. falt |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | root | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | blood | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang, Ir., Sc.G. fuil |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | wind | Goidelic; from O.Ir. dative Template:Lang; cf. Ir., Sc.G. Template:Lang, dative gaoith |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | sand | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Sc.G. Template:Lang, Ir. gaineamh |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | knee | Goidelic; from O.Ir. dative Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang, dative glùin |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | sun | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir., Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | smoke | Goidelic, from M.Ir. Template:Lang < O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | dust | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | fog | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | sea | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang "harbor", Sc.G. Template:Lang "ocean" |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | breast | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | forest | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | head | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang, dative ciond; cf. Ir., Sc.G. Template:Lang, dative cionn |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | day | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang, Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | hand | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | ashes | Goidelic; from O.Ir. dative Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | lake | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | leg | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang "shin bone"; cf. Ir. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | stick | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang, Ir., Sc.G. maide |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | louse | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | fruit | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir., Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | dog | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. madra, N.Ir. mada,madadh [madu], Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | mother | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. máthair, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | neck | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, muinéal, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | night | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang (accusative Template:Lang); cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | egg | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang,Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | child | French; from E.M.Ir. Template:Lang "page, attendant" < O.Fr. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | road | English; from Cl.Ir. Template:Lang,Template:Lang< M.E. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | seed | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | star | Goidelic; from M.Ir. Template:Lang < O.Ir. Template:Lang + feminine diminutive suffix -óg; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | bark | Brythonic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang Brythonic (cf. Welsh Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | wing | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | mountain | Goidelic, from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir., Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | snow | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | salt | Goidelic; from O.Ir., Ir., Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | eye | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. súil, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | nose | Goidelic; from O.Ir. dative Template:Lang; cf. Ir. srón, dialect sróin, dative sróin, Sc.G. Template:Lang, dative sròin |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | rope | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang, Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | earth | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir., Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | bird | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang "lark"; cf. Ir. Template:Lang, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | water | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir. uisce, Sc.G. Template:Lang |
| Template:Lang | Template:IPA | fingernail | Goidelic; from O.Ir. Template:Lang; cf. Ir., Sc.G. Template:Lang, dative iongain, plural Ir. iongna, Sc.G. iongnan, etc. |
See Celtic Swadesh lists for the complete list in all the Celtic languages.
Phrases
[edit]| Manx (Template:Lang) | English (Template:Lang) |
|---|---|
| Template:Lang | Good morning |
| Template:Lang | Good afternoon/evening |
| Template:Lang | Good night |
| Template:Lang ("tu" form) Template:Lang (plural) Template:Lang ("vous" form) |
How are you |
| Template:Lang | Very well |
| Template:Lang ("tu" form) Template:Lang ("vous" form) |
Thank you |
| Template:Lang Template:Lang |
And yourself |
| Template:Lang Template:Lang |
Goodbye |
| Template:Lang | Yessir (Manx English equivalent of "man" (US: "dude"), as an informal term of address; found as a dhuine in Irish and Scottish Gaelic) |
| Template:Lang | Isle of Man |
Loanwords
[edit]
Loanwords are primarily Norse and English, with a smaller number coming from French. Some examples of Norse loanwords are Template:Lang "garden" (from Template:Lang "enclosure") and Template:Lang "sea rock" (from Template:Lang). Examples of French loanwords are Template:Lang "danger" (from Template:Lang) and Template:Lang "advantage" (from Template:Lang).
English loanwords were common in late (pre-revival) Manx, e.g. Template:Lang "boy", Template:Lang "badger", rather than the more usual native Gaelic Template:Lang and Template:Lang. In more recent years, there has been a reaction against such borrowing, resulting in coinages for technical vocabulary. Despite this, calques exist in Manx, not necessarily obvious to its speakers. To fill gaps in recorded Manx vocabulary, revivalists have referred to modern Irish and Scottish Gaelic for words and inspiration.
Some religious terms come ultimately from Latin, Greek and Hebrew, e.g. Template:Lang "holy" (from Latin Template:Lang), Template:Lang "church" (from Greek Template:Lang/Template:Transliteration "assembly") and Template:Lang "abbot" (from Hebrew Template:Lang/Template:Transliteration "father"). These did not necessarily come directly into Manx, but via Old Irish. In more recent times, Template:Lang has been borrowed from modern Hebrew. Many Irish and English loanwords also have a classical origin, e.g. Template:Lang "television" (Irish Template:Lang) and Template:Lang "telephone". Foreign language words (usually via English) are used occasionally especially for ethnic food, e.g. chorizo and spaghetti.
Going in the other direction, Manx Gaelic has influenced Manx English (Anglo-Manx). Common words and phrases in Anglo-Manx originating in the language include tholtan "ruined farmhouse",<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> quaaltagh "first-foot", keeill "(old) church", cammag, traa-dy-liooar "time enough", and Tynwald (tinvaal), which is ultimately of Norse origin, but comes from Manx. It is suggested that the House of Keys takes its name from Kiare as Feed (four and twenty), which is the number of its sitting members.
Vocabulary comparison examples
[edit]Gaelic versions of the Lord's Prayer
[edit]The Lord's Prayer has been translated into all of the Gaelic languages (and Old Irish). Although not direct, it is a good demonstration of the differences between their orthographies.
Template:Col-begin Template:Col-2
- The standard version of the Lord's Prayer in Manx
<poem lang="gv" style="padding-left: 1em;"> Ayr ain t'ayns niau, Casherick dy row dt'ennym. Dy jig dty reeriaght. Dt'aigney dy row jeant er y thalloo, myr t'ayns niau. Cur dooin nyn arran jiu as gagh laa, as leih dooin nyn loghtyn, myr ta shin leih dauesyn ta jannoo loghtyn nyn 'oi. As ny leeid shin ayns miolagh, agh livrey shin veih olk: Son lhiats y reeriaght, as y phooar, as y ghloyr, son dy bragh as dy bragh. Amen. </poem> Template:Col-2
- Manx version of 1713<ref>MANX GAELIC ( Gaelig, Gaelg ) Template:Webarchive from www.christusrex.org. Source of text: "ORATIO DOMINICA – Polyglottos, Polymorphos – Nimirum, Plus Centum Linguis, Versionibus, aut Characteribus Reddita & Expressa" ("Lord's Prayer - many languages and forms - restored and rendered in certainly over 100 languages, versions or types"), Daniel Brown, London, 1713.</ref>
<poem lang="gv" style="padding-left: 1em;"> Ayr Ain, t'ayns Niau; Casherick dy rou dt'ennym; Di jig dty Reereeaght; Dt'aigney dy rou jeant er y Talloo myr ta ayns Niau; Cur dooin nyn Arran jiu as gagh laa; As leih dooin nyn Loghtyn, myr ta shin leih dauesyn ta janoo loghtyn ny noi shin; As ny leeid shin ayns Miolagh; Agh livrey shin veih olk; Son liats y Reereeaght y Phooar as y Ghloyr, son dy bragh as dy bragh. Amen </poem> Template:Col-end
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- The prayer in Old Irish<ref>Ta'n lhieggan shoh jeh'n Phadjer aascreeuit 'sy chlou Romanagh veih'n çhenn chlou Yernagh. Son d'akin er y lhieggan shen jeh'n phadjer gow dys y duillag shoh Template:Webarchive ec www.christusrex.org</ref>
<poem lang="sga" style="padding-left: 1em;"> A athair fil hi nimib, Noemthar thainm. Tost do flaithius. Did do toil i talmain amail ata in nim. Tabair dun indiu ar sasad lathi. Ocus log dun ar fiachu amail logmaitne diar fhechemnaib. Ocus nis lecea sind i n-amus n-dofulachtai. Acht ron soer o cech ulc. Amen ropfir. </poem> Template:Col-3
- The Prayer in modern Irish
<poem lang="ga" style="padding-left: 1em;"> Ár n-Athair, atá ar neamh: go naofar d'ainm (alt. go naomhaíthear t'ainm). Go dtaga(idh) do ríocht. Go ndéantar do thoil ar an (d)talamh, mar dhéantar ar neamh. Ár n-arán laethúil tabhair dúinn inniu, agus maith dúinn ár bhfiacha (alt. ár gcionta), mar mhaithimid dár bhféichiúna féin (alt. mar a mhaithimíd dóibh a chiontaíonn inár n-aghaidh). Agus ná lig sinn i gcathú (alt. i gcathaíbh), ach saor sinn ó(n) olc. Óir is leatsa an Ríocht agus an Chumhacht agus an Ghlóir, trí shaol na saol (alt. le saol na saol / go síoraí). Áiméan. </poem> Template:Col-3
- The Prayer in Scottish Gaelic
<poem lang="gd" style="padding-left: 1em;"> Ar n-Athair a tha air nèamh, Gu naomhaichear d' ainm. Thigeadh do rìoghachd. Dèanar do thoil air an talamh, mar a nithear air nèamh. Tabhair dhuinn an-diugh ar n-aran làitheil. Agus maith dhuinn ar fiachan, amhail a mhaitheas sinne dar luchd-fiach. Agus na leig ann am buaireadh sinn; ach saor sinn o olc: oir is leatsa an rìoghachd, agus a' chumhachd, agus a' ghlòir, gu sìorraidh. Amen. </poem> Template:Col-end
Example text
[edit]Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Manx: Template:Col-begin Template:Col-2
- Manx
- Template:Lang<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
- English
- All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Media
[edit]Template:See also Two weekly programmes in Manx are available on medium wave on Manx Radio: Template:Lang on Monday and Template:Lang on Friday. The news in Manx is available online from Manx Radio, who have three other weekly programmes that use the language: Template:Lang; Template:Lang and Template:Lang. Several news readers on Manx Radio also use a good deal of incidental Manx.
The Isle of Man Examiner has a monthly bilingual column in Manx.
The first film to be made in Manx, 22-minute-long Template:Lang "The Sheep Under the Snow", premiered in 1983 and was entered for the 5th Celtic Film and Television Festival in Cardiff in 1984. It was directed by Shorys Y Creayrie (George Broderick) for Foillan Films of Laxey, and is about the background to an early 18th-century folk song. In 2013, a short film, Solace in Wicca, was produced with financial assistance from Culture Vannin, CinemaNX and Isle of Man Film.<ref>Template:Cite webTemplate:Cbignore</ref> A series of short cartoons about the life of Cú Chulainn which was produced by BBC Northern Ireland is available<ref>Template:Cite webTemplate:Cbignore</ref> as are a series of cartoons on Manx mythology.<ref>Template:Cite webTemplate:Cbignore</ref> Most significant is a 13-part DVD series Manx translation of the award-winning series Friends and Heroes.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Literature
[edit]Template:Main Manx never had a large number of speakers, so it would not have been practical to mass-produce written literature. However, a body of oral literature did exist. The "Fianna" tales and others like them are known, including the Manx ballad Template:Lang, commemorating Finn MacCumhail and Oisín.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> With the coming of Protestantism, Manx spoken tales slowly disappeared, while a tradition of carvals, Christian ballads, developed with religious sanction. Even so, Bishop Mark Hildesley, after his gardener overheard him discussing the Ossian poems of James Macpherson and admitted to known of Fionn and Oisin, the Bishop collected from the local oral tradition multiple lays in Manx from the Fenian Cycle of Celtic Mythology, which were accordingly preserved for the future.<ref>Mannanan's Cloak: An Anthology of Manx Literature by Robert Corteen Carswell, London: Francis Boutle Publishers, 2010, pp. 80–86. (translation by Robert Corteen Carswell)</ref>
There is no record of literature written distinctively in Manx before the Reformation. By that time, any presumed literary link with Ireland and Scotland, such as through Irish-trained priests, had been lost. The first published literature in Manx was The Principles and Duties of Christianity (Template:Lang), translated by Bishop of Sodor and Man Thomas Wilson.<ref name=":1" />
The Book of Common Prayer was translated by John Phillips, the Welsh-born Anglican Bishop of Sodor and Man from 1605 to 1633. The early Manx script has some similarities with orthographical systems found occasionally in Scotland and in Ireland for the transliteration of Gaelic, such as the Book of the Dean of Lismore, as well as some extensive texts based on English and Scottish English orthographical practices of the time. Little secular Manx literature has been preserved.
The New Testament was first published in 1767. When the Anglican church authorities started to produce written literature in the Manx language in the 18th century, the system developed by John Philips was further "anglicised"; the one feature retained from Welsh orthography was the use of Template:Vr to represent Template:IPAslink (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA "horse" and Template:Lang Template:IPA "help" as well as Template:IPA (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA "knowledge"), though it is also used to represent Template:IPA, (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA "John" (vocative), Template:Lang Template:IPA "fish").
Other works produced in the 18th and 19th centuries include catechisms, hymn books and religious tracts. A translation of Paradise Lost was made by Rev. Thomas Christian of Marown in 1796.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
A considerable amount of secular literature has been produced in the 20th and 21st centuries as part of the language revival. In 2006, the first full-length novel in Manx, Template:Lang ("The Vampire Murders") was published by Brian Stowell, after being serialised in the press. There is an increasing amount of literature available in the language, and recent publications include Manx versions of the Gruffalo and Gruffalo's Child.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Antoine de Saint-Exupéry's The Little Prince was translated into Manx by Rob Teare in 2019.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Manx and Christianity
[edit]The Manx Bible
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The Bible was first produced in Manx by a group of Anglican clergymen on the island. The Gospel of Matthew was printed in 1748. The Gospel and Template:Lang were produced in 1763 and 1767, respectively, by the Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge (SPCK). In 1772 the Old Testament was printed, together with the Wisdom of Solomon and Ecclesiasticus (Sirach) from the Apocrypha.
Template:Lang "The Holy Bible" of the Old and New Testaments was published as one book by the SPCK in 1775, effectively fixing the modern orthography of Manx, which has changed little since. Jenner claims that some bowdlerisation had occurred in the translation, e.g. the occupation of Rahab the prostitute is rendered as Template:LangTemplate:Citation needed "a hostess, female inn-keeper."<ref name="isle-of-man.com"/> The bicentenary was celebrated in 1975 and included a set of stamps from the Isle of Man Post Office.
There was a translation of the Template:Lang ("Psalms of David") in metre in Manx by the Rev John Clague, vicar of Rushen, which was printed with the Book of Common Prayer of 1768. Bishop Hildesley required that these Metrical Psalms were to be sung in churches. These were reprinted by Template:Lang in 1905.
The British and Foreign Bible Society (BFBS) published the Template:Lang "New Testament" in 1810 and reprinted it in 1824. Template:Lang "The Holy Bible" of the Old Testament and New Testament (without the two books of the Apocrypha) was first printed as a whole in 1819. BFBS last printed anything on paper in Manx in 1936 when it reprinted Template:Lang "the Gospel of St John"; this was reprinted by Template:Lang in 1968. The Manx Bible was republished by Shearwater Press in July 1979 as Template:Lang (Manx Family Bible), which was a reproduction of the BFBS 1819 Bible.
Since 2014 the BFBS 1936 Manx Gospel of John has been available online on YouVersion and Bibles.org.
Church
[edit]Manx has not been used in Mass since the late 19th century,<ref name="isle-of-man.com"/> though Template:Lang holds an annual Christmas service on the island.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In a move towards the Catholic Church in the Isle of Man having a Bishop of its own, in September 2023 St. Mary of the Isle Church in Douglas was granted Co-Cathedral status by Pope Francis. During the Mass of dedication by Malcolm McMahon, the Archbishop of Liverpool, the Lord's Prayer was recited in Manx and the Manx National Anthem was also performed.<ref>https://www.iomtoday.co.im/news/pope-francis-grants-rare-honour-to-douglas-church-after-year-long-process-640101 Template:Bare URL inline</ref><ref>https://manxcatholic.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/Cathedral-press-statement-for-Manx-media-22-Sept-23.pdf Template:Bare URL PDF</ref><ref>Joy for Isle of Man Catholics as cathedral date confirmed, Universe Catholic Weekly.</ref>
See also
[edit]- Cornish, another revived Celtic language.
- Irish language revival
- List of Celtic-language media
- List of revived languages
- List of television channels in Celtic languages
References
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External links
[edit]Template:InterWiki Template:Commons category Template:Wiktionary category Template:Wikivoyage Template:WikisourceWiki
- Percentage of resident population with a knowledge of Manx Gaelic
- A bit of Manx Gaelic history
- Manx language, alphabet and pronunciation at Omniglot
- Information about the language
- isle-of-man.com language section
- Manx dictionaries via Multidict
- Online Manx Lessons with MP3 recordings
- Bilingual Bible in Manx and English by the Manx Language Project
- Manx: Bringing a language back from the dead
- Media article about the Manx revival
- Manx free online course
Template:Celtic languages Template:Manx linguistics Template:Celts Template:Languages of the United Kingdom Template:Languages of Europe